LIBRARY 


University  of  California. 


Gl  FT    OF 


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Class 


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COMMONWEALTH  OF  PENNSYLVANIA. 


DEPAIIIMENT  OF  AlilllCliLTUKIi. 


BULLETIN   NO.  63. 


A  COlj'RSE  IN  MTIIRE  STUDY  FOR 
USE  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


By  LOUISE  MILLER. 


PUBLISHED  BY  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SECRETARY. 


1900. 


WM.  STANLEY  RAY, 

STATE   PKINTEK   OF   PENNSTLVANIA. 
1900. 


COMMONWEALTH  OF  PENNSYLVANIA. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICOLTORE. 


BULLETIN   NO.  63. 


1  COURSE  IN  NATURE  STDDI  FOR 
USE  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


By  LOUISE.  MILLER. 


PUBLISHED  BY  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SECRETARY. 


1900. 


WM.  STANLEY  RAY, 

STATE   PRINTER   OF   PENNSYLVANIA. 
1900. 


^lfc 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

PREFACE, 3 

LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL, 7 

FIRST  GRADE, 9 

SECOND  GRADE,   16 

THIRD  GRADE,   24 

FOURTH  GRADE, 31 

FIFTH  GRADE, 38 

Insects, 51 

Place  of  insects  in  animal  kingdom, 53 

.  Parts  of  insects,  53 

Injurious  insects,   55 

Some  of  nature's  insecticides, 57 

OUTLINE  FOR  TREE  STUDY  FOR  ALL  GRADES, 58 

Outline  for  tree  description,  60 

Forms  of  tree  description, 61 

Drawings, 61 

OUTLINE  FOR  DETERMINING  MINERALS, 67 

GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS, 69 

SIXTH  GRADE,   70 

« 

Osmosis,  70 

Transportation  of  moisture, 71 

Path  of  liquids  in  plants, 72 

Carbon  food  of  plants, 72 

Respiration  of  plants, 72 

Growth  of  plants, 73 

Irritability,    73 

Birds,  74 

Minerals,    80 

Physics, 83 

Heat, 85 

SEVENTH  GRADE,    88 

Formation  of  coal,  93 

Mineral  oil  and  gas, 94 

Glacial  period,  94 

Sun,    96 

Light, 97 

Sounds  in  nature, 98 

EIGHTH  GRADE, 101 

The  home, 101 

Spring  work 109 

Care  of  garden,  Ill 

PICTURES  SUGGESTED  FOR  USE  IN  SCHOOLS Ill 

STATUARY 116 

APPARATUS,    117 

(1) 

166446 


(2) 


PREFACE. 


Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Jun^  25,  1900. 

The  following  Bulletin,  giving  a  course  in  Nature  Study  for  the 
public  schools,  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  valuable  of  all  of 
those  which  the  Department  has  hitherto  published.  The  course  was 
outlined  and  prepared  by  Miss  Louise  Miller,  who  for  several  years 
had  charge  of  Natuf  e  Study  work  in  the  schools  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  and 
will  commend  itself  to  natural  history  teachers  as  being  not  only  sci- 
entifically accurate  and  exceedingly  suggestive,  but  as  also  out- 
lining in  a  systematic  way,  a  branch  and  method  of  education  pecu- 
liarly adapted  to  country  schools.  The  study  of  nature,  by  observing 
the  things  themselves,  is  the  new  and  rational  method  of  instruction 
and  constitutes  what  now  is  known  by  the  modern  name,  "Nature 
Study." 

This  bulletin  is  intended  as  a  guide  to  teachers,  indicating  the 
subjects  adapted  to  each  grade  of  scholars,  and  giving  the  order  in 
which  the  subject  ought  to  be  pursued.  An  inspection  of  the  work 
proposed  by  this  course  will  show  how  much  there  is  in  the  vicinity 
of  every  country  school  to  interest  and  instruct  in  the  numerous 
natural  objects,  in  regard  to  which  the  mass  of  our  population  have 
but  little  knowledge,  and  which,  if  properly  presented,  may  be,  at 
least  partially  understood,  by  the  smallest  pupil. 

The  bulletin  is  also  informal  notice  to  teachers  in  Pennsylvania 
that  in  the  near  future,  such  instruction  as  it  outlines,  wall  be  re- 
quired in  every  country  school.  Those,  therefore,  who  wish  to  follow 
this  profession  will  do  well  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  method 
here  presented,  and  begin  preparation  for  the  work  to  be  performed, 
so  that  when  their  examiners  come  to  question  them'  as  to  natural  ob- 
jects, whose  uses  and  characteristics  they  are  expected  to  under- 
stand and  explain  to  others,  they  may  be  ready  to  answer  intelli- 
gently, and  satisfactorily  perform  the  duties  required. 

This  is  no  new  fad  in  education,  but  is  older  than  the  Common- 
wealth itself.  William  Penn,  near  the  close  of  his  life,  in  a  work 
entitled  "Reflections  and  Maxims,"  suggested  substantially  the 
method  now  proposed  to  be  pursued  in  the  education  of  our  youth. 
His  words  are  so  closely  in  accord  with  advanced  modern  thought  in 
education  along  nature  study  lines,  that  I  present  them  here  in  full 
in  the  hope  that  the  most  conservative  may  be  influenced  to  accept 

(3) 


this  teaching,  and  adopt  the  new' education,  which  promises  so  much 
for  the  development  of  country  children  and  country  life. 

He  says : 

"The  world  is  certainly  a  great  and  stately  volume  of  natural  things 
and  may  be,  not  improperly,  styled  the  hieroglyphics  of  a  letter;  but, 
alas,  how  very  few  leaves  of  it  do  we  seriously  turn  over!  This  ought 
to  be  the  subject  of  the  education  of  our  youth;  who,  at  twenty,  when 
(hey  should  be  fit  for  business  know  little  or  nothing  of  it.  We  are 
in  pain  to  make  them  scholars  but  not  men;  to  talk  rather  than  to 
know,  which  is  true  canting.  The  first  thing  obvious  to  children  is 
what  is  sensible;  and  that  we  make  no  part  of  their  rudiments.  We 
press  their  memory  too  soon,  and  puzzle,  strain  and  load  them  with 
W;Ords  and  rules  to  know  Grammar  and  Rhetoric,  and  a  strange 
tongue  or  two,  that  it  is  ten  to  one  may  never  be  useful  to  them;  leav- 
ing their  natural  genuis  to  mechanical,  physical  or  natural  knowledge, 
uncultivated  and  neglected;  which  would  be  of  exceeding  use  and 
pleasure  to  them  through  the  whole  course  of  their  lives. 

"Tobe  sure,  languages  are  not  to  be  despised  or  neglected;  but  things 
are  still  to  be  preferred.  Children  had  rather  be  making  tools  and 
instruments  of  play,  shaping,  drawing,  framing,  building,  etc.,  than 
getting  some  rules  of  propriety  of  speech  by  heart;  and  these  also 
would  follow  with  more  judgment,  and  less  trouble  and  time. 

''It  were  happy  if  we  studied  nature  more  in  natural  things;  and 
acted  according  to  nature;  whose  rules  are  few,  plain  and  most  reason- 
able. Let  us  begin,  therefore,  where  she  begins,  go  her  pace,  and 
close  always  where  she  ends,  and  we  cannot  miss  of  being  good 
naturalists.  The  creation  would  not  be  longer  a  riddle  to  us.  The 
heavens,  earth  and  waters,  with  their  respective,  various  and  numer- 
ous inhabitants,  their  productions,  natures,  seasons,  sympathies  and 
antipathies,  their  use,  benefit  and  pleasure,  would  be  better  under- 
stood by  us;  and  an  eternal  wisdom,  power,  majesty,  and  goodness, 
very  conspicuous  to  us,  through  these  sensible  and  passing  forms; 
the  world  wearing  the  mark  of  its  Maker  whose  stamp  is  everywhere 
visible,  and  the  characters  very  legible  to  the  children  of  wisdom. 
And  it  would  go  a  great  way  to  caution  and  direct  people  in  their  use 
of  the  world,  that  they  were  better  studied  and  known  in  the  creation 
of  it.  For  how  could  men  find  the  confidence  to  abuse  it,  while  they 
should  see  the  great  Creator  stare  them  in  th.e  face,  in  all  and  every 
part  thereof?  Their  ignorance  makes  them  insensible;  and  to  that 
insensibility  may  be  ascribed  their  hard  usage  of  several  parts  of  this 
noble  creation;  that  has  the  stamp  and  voice  of  a  Deity  everywhere, 
and  in  everything,  to  the  observing. 

"It  is  a  pity,  therefore,  that  books  have  not  been  composed  for 
youth,  by  some  curious  and  careful  naturalists,  and  also  mechanics, 
in  the  Latin  tongue,  to  be  used  in  schools,  that  they  might  learn 


things  with  words;  things  obvious  and  familiar  to  them,  and  which 
would  make  the  tongue  easier  to  be  obtained  by  them. 

"Many  able  gardeners  and  husbandmen  are  ignorant  of  the  reason 
of  their  calling;  as  most  artificers  are  of  the  reason  of  their  own 
rules  that  govern  their  excellent  workmanship.  But  a  naturalist  and 
mechanic  of  this  sort  is  master  of  the  reason  of  both;  and  might  be  of 
practice  too,  if  his  industry  kept  pace  with  his  speculations,  which 
were  very  commendable,  and  without  which  he  cannot  be  said  to  be 
a  complete  naturalist  or  mechanic. 

"Finally,  if  a  man  be  the  index  or  epitome  of  the  world,  as  phil- 
osophers tell  us,  we  have  only  to  read  ourselves  well,  to  be  learned  in 
it.  But  because  there  is  nothing  we  less  regard  than  the  characters 
of  the  Power  that  made  us,  which  are  so  clearly  written  upon  us,  and 
the  world  he  has  given  us,  and  can  best  tell  us  what  we  are  and 
should  be,  we  are  even  strangers  to  our  own  genius;  the  glass  in  which 
we  should  see  that  true,  instructing  and  agreeable  variety,  which 
is  to  be  observed  in  nature,  to  the  admiration  of  that  wisdom  and  the 
adoration  of  that  Power  which  made  us  all." 

Had  these  suggestions  been  adopted  at  the  time  they  were  offered, 
the  education  of  to-day  would  have  been  far  in  advance  of  its  present 
state,  and  the  country  schools  in  Pennsylvania  would  be  turning  out 
classes  of  enthusiastic  scholars,  informed  and  interested  in  the 
wonderful  phenomena  of  the  natural  world  in  which  they  have  been 
placed,  and  which  they  are  endowed  with  power,  to  study,  use  and 
enjoy. 

JOHN  HAMILTON, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


(6) 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


To  Prof.  John  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  Agriculture: 

Dear  Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  present  herewith  the  Bulletin  upon 
a  course  in  ^'Nature  Study/'  which,  several  months  ago,  you  requested 
me  to  prepare. 

My  hope  is,  that  it  may  prove  useful,  in  directing  the  attention  of 
school  directors  and  teachers,  to  the  importance  and  practicability 
of  the  study  of  nature  in  our  public  schools. 

Nature  Study  should  mean  Nature  loving.  Its  object  should  be  to 
open  the  minds  and  hearts  of  the  children  to  a  greater  interest,  keener 
appreciation,  deeper  feverence  for  the  beauties  and  wonders  of  crea- 
tion.    The  inquiring  minds  should  be  quickened. 

Most  of  the  work  outlined  has  been  accomplished  by  children  in  the 
grades  indicated.  As  conditions  differ,  each  teacher  should  select 
from  the  outline  material  which  can  be  used  to  best  advantage,  and 
arouse  the  greatest  interest.  It  is  neither  expected  nor  desired  that 
all  the  work  herein  outlined  shall  be  accomplished,  but  that  it  shall 
prove  largely  suggestive. 

It  is  hoped  all  will  grasp  fundamental  principles  and  teach  only 
that  which  is  vital.  Too  much  time  is  spent  upon  non-essentials, 
and  the  great  unity  in  nature  overlooked.  Nothing  should  be  taught 
in  isolation,  but  the  close  relation  between  organic  and  inorganic 
should  be  emphasized.  Plants  should  be  studied  as  the  great  anima- 
ting principle,  forming  a  connecting  link  between  dead  mineral  matter 
and  the  highly  organized  animal  life. 

Teachers  should  constantly  encourage  pupils  to  collect  material,  to 
construct  apparatus,  to  observe  all  natural  phenomena,  and  then 
gradually  lead  them  to  discover  relations.  All  knowledge  is  largely 
a  matter  of  relations.  The  ethical  value  also  should  always  be  prom- 
inently brought  out. 

Pupils  should  be  led  to  realize  their  place  in  nature,  and  to  feel  that 
they  are  but  higher  expressions  of  the  same  energy  which  produced  a 
drop  of  dew,  or  a  world. 

Very  resp^ectfully, 

LOUISE  MILLER. 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  June  25,  1900. 


(7) 


(8) 


_         OF 
i^UFORNAL 


A    COURSE    IN    NATURE   STUDY  FOR    USE  IN 
THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


FIRST   GRADE. 


SEPTEMBER. 

PLANTS. 

Compare  growth  of  twigs  on  different  trees — maple,  horse-chestnut, 
poplar,  spruce. 

Relation  of  insects  to  leaves — used  as  nests,  for  food,"  for  deposit- 
ories for  eggs,  not  disturbed. 

Fruits. — Classification  as  to  color  and  taste;  reason  for  color  and 
taste. 

ANIMALS. 

Migration  of  birds.  Study  cat  and  dog.  Compare  coats  as  to  tex- 
ture, color,  distribution,  warmth  and  protection. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Construct  a  magnetic  needle  to  determine  directions. 

Daily  record  of  day,  date,  frost  or  dew,  direction  of  wind,  clouds 
or  fogs,  rain,  temperature. 

Locate  places  in  the  horizon  where  the  sun  rises  and  sets.  Posi- 
tion of  sun  at  noon ;  morning  and  evening  star. 

MINERALS. 

Make  collections  of  pebbles.  Classify  as  to  color,  form,  smooth- 
ness, weight,  etc.  Examine  coarse  and  find  sand.  Relate  to  smooth- 
ness of  pebbles,  and  etTects  of  water. 

NOTE. — In  the  study  of  trees,  observations  should  be  confined  to  a  few 
throughout  the  year.  The  shape,  bark,  wood,  leaves,  blossoms,  fruit  cocoons, 
should  be  studied  and  comparisons  made.  The  life  infesting  the  tree  should  be 
noted,  and,  if  possible,  reasons  assigned. 

Place  list  of  different  kinds  of  birds  observed  by  pupils  during  summer  in  a 
conspicuous  place  on  the  board,  also  list  of  those  observed  during  first  weeks 
of  school.  Relate  migration  of  birds  to  Weather  Record,  noting  effect  of  tem- 
perature upon  insect  life,  growth,  bud  scars  and  leaf  scars.  Relate  structure  and 
migration  to  food  getting;  robin  and  earthworm;  woodpecker  and  grub;  quail 
and  seeds. 

Construct  magnetic  needle  by  magnetizing  end  of  a  needle  with  opposite  poles 
of  a  magnet,  inserting  through  center  of  small  cork,  and  suspending  by  silk 
thread. 

(9) 


10 

Suspend  a  prism  in  a  window  where  the  sun  may  stril^e  it,  forming  a  spectrum. 

Compare  color  of  flowers,  leaves,  fruits,  pebbles  with  spectrum,  noting  pre- 
vailing color. 

Much  attention  should  be  given  to  sense-training.  Children  should  be  led  to 
detect  form  and  texture  by  touch  alone,  perfume  by  smell,  sound  by  hearing, 
flavors  by  tasting,  weight  by  the  muscular  sense,  different  fruits,  leaves,  flowers, 
minerals,  birds,  insects  by  sight. 

OCTOBER. 
PLANTS. 

Buds  for  next  year's  growth;  color  of  bark,  growth  of  wood;  hard- 
ness of  bark  and  wood. 

Leaves. — Effect  of  frost,  color  of  falling  leaves,  leaf-scars.  Seeds. 
— Distribution  by  wind,  bursting  pods.  Protective  coloration  of 
seeds. 

ANIMALS. 

Disappearance  of  birds,  insects  and  animals.  Relate  covering  to 
disappearance.  Compare  movements  of  cat  and  dog  with  birds,  in- 
sects and  other  animals. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  frost,  dew%  winds,  clouds,  fogs,  rain  and  temperature  with 
September. 

Change  in  rising  and  setting  sun;  position  of  sun  at  noon.  Change 
of  length  of  day  and  night.  ^ 

MINERALS. 

Classify  as  to  physical  properties  sandstone  and  limestone.  Com- 
pare sand  and  clay.  Relate  to  disappearance  of  frogs,  turtles,  snakes, 
etc. 

NOTE. — Children  should  be  led  to  see  that  destiny  of  trees  does  not  depend 
alone  upon  the  production  of  its  seeds,  but  that  much  of  its  energy  is  devoted  to 
growth.  Compare  number  of  buds  formed  by  different  trees  and  relate  to  itr, 
development.  Relate  falling  leaves  to  disappearance  of  sap  into  roots,  structure 
of  leaves  to  distribution,  etc. 

Fruits  whose  germs  are  destroyed  when  eaten,  are  usually  of  a  dull  color  when 
ready  for  distribution — nuts;  those  whose  germs  are  not  so  destroyed,  assume 
a  brilliant  color;  luscious  taste  and  fragrant  odor — cherries,  peaches,  grapes. 

Relate  frost  to  disappearance  of  birds  and  insects,  winds  to  distribution  of 
seeds,  change  of  position  of  sun  to  change  in  temperature  and  its  effects  upon  life. 
In  primary  grades  pupils  should  be  forming  geographical  concepts  and  they  can 
do  so  most  effectually  by  coming  in  contact  with  things. 

NOVEMBER. 
PLANTS. 

Preparation  of  twigs  for  winter — thickened  bark,  scales  on 
buds,  etc. 


II 

ANIMALS. 

Preparation  of  animal  life  for  winter.  Compare  covering  of  cat, 
dog  and  sheep  in  their  preparation  for  winter.  Use  of  wool  for 
clothing. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Prevailing  winds  cold  or  warm,  wet  or  dry.  Clouds  higher  or 
lower  than  in  September  and  October.     Examine  frost  crystals. 

Compare  rising,  setting  and  position  of  sun  at  noon  with  Sep- 
tember.    Rising  of  new,  full  and  waning  moon. 

MINERALS. 

Examine  granite  and  marble.  Compare  size  of  crystals.  When 
are  snow  crystals  large? 

NOTE. — Compare  preparation  of  twigs,  thickening  of  bark,  number  and  char- 
acter of  scales  on  bud.  varnish  and  protection  of  leaves  inside  of  bud.  Relate 
change  in  temperature  to  preparation  of  animals  for  winter.  Relate  change  of 
position  of  sun  to  change  of  temperature. 


DECEMBER. 


PLANTS. 


Effect  of  frost  upon  plant  life;  protection  and  use.  Any  germina- 
tion. 

ANIMATES. 

Compare  dog,  ca<,  sheep,  horse  and  cow  as  to  movements,  means  of 
getting  food,  means  of  protection,  use  to  man. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Examine  snow-flakes.     Frost  and  snow  protection  to  life. 
Comi)aie  rising,  settiiig  and  position  of  sun  at  noon  with  September. 

MINERALS. 

Compare  structure  of  granite,  marble,  limestone,  and  sandstone. 

NOTE. — Relate  length  of  day  to  frost  and  its  effects.  Spruce  trees  should  be 
studied  in  relation  to  Christmas.  Difference  between  evergreen  and  deciduous 
trees,  leaves  and  needles,  fruit  and  cones,  bark,  wood,  etc.  Relate  structure  of 
animals  to  environment.  Compare  manner  of  putting  down  the  feet,  length 
and  structure  of  limbs,  cushions,  claws,  hoofs,  etc.  Relate  to  manner  of  getting 
food.  Relate  snow  flakes  and  frost,  dew  and  rain,  to  change  in  temperature. 
Note  effect  of  frost  upon  soils.  Relate  to  plants  and  seeds  and  hibernating 
animals. 


12 


JANUARY. 

PLANTS 


Effect  of  warm  days  upon  plants.     P^nemies  of  buds— birds  and 
frost;  protection  of  buds.     Sap  in  trees. 


ANIMALS. 


Compare  food  of  January  and  June.  Compare  teeth  of  dog  and 
cat,  sheep,  cow  and  horse  witli  human  teeth  and  relate  to  kinds  of 
food. 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  number  of  rainy  or  snowy  days  with  December.  Increase 
of  day;  rising  and  setting  sun.     Compare  with  November. 

MINERALS. 

Compare  physical  characteristics  of  granile,  marble,  sandstone, 
limestone  and  slate. 

NOTE. — Of  what  advantage  or  disadvantage,  are  warm  days  in  January  to 
plants?  When  and  why  are  buds  used  by  birds  as  food?  Examine  twigs  of 
maple,  horse-chestnut,  and  spruce.  Note  buds  destroyed  by  birds,  wind,  or 
killed  by  frost.  Compare  hibernating  and  non-hibernating  animals  as  to  cov- 
ering, structure,  manner  of  getting  food,  etc. — turtle,  cat,  dog  or  bird.  Place 
hibernating  animals  in  a  box  of  moist  earth  and  permit  pupils  to  observe  them 
disappear. 


FEBRUARY. 

PLANTS. 

Determine  location  of  frozen  buds  on  twigs;  number  found,  kind, 
number  killed  and  number  alive. 

ANIMALS. 

Manner  in  which  dog,  cat,  sheep,  horse  and  cow  take  their  food. 
Compare  prehensile  organs  with  man's. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Increased  or  decreased    temperature  since    December.     Compare^ 
January  and  February.     Prevailing  wind — cold  or  warm. 

Compare  length  of  day  and  night  with  previous  months.     Note  suri 
rise  and  sunset. 


\ 


13 
MINERALS. 

Compare  diiferent  kinds  of  coal  in  color,  weight,  softness,  hard- 
ness, etc. 

NOTE. — Observe  the  amount  of  work  done  by  different  trees  in  preparation 
for  winter.  Relate  to  effectiveness.  The  horse-chestnut  has  a  few  well  protected 
buds  prepared;  others  many,  but  not  so  well  protected.     Moral  lesson. 

Function  of  leaves,  assimilation  of  food. 

Compare  this  year's  growth  of  horse-chestnut,  maple,  and  spruce  as  to  num- 
ber, size,  shape,  texture,  etc.    Reason. 

Compare  perfection  of  jaws  of  animals  with  length  of  jaw. 


MARCH. 

PLANTS. 

Study  tree — environment,  beauty,  form,  leaves,  blossoms,  etc. 

ANIMALS. 

Begin  Natural  History  Calendar — observation,  day,  date^  by  whom, 
remarks.     Watch  for  the  first  appearance  of  birds.- 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Change  in  cloudiness,  rainfall.  Compare  with  September  and  De- 
cember. 

Compare  length  of  day  and  night. 

MINERALS. 

Compare  granite,  limesi^one,  marble,  sandstone  and  coal,  as  to  color, 
texture,  weight,  tenacity. 

NOTE. — Effect  of  location  of  a  tree  near  house,  other  trees,  in  open  space. 
Observe  trunk  and  branching  of  maple,  horse-chestnut  and  spt-uce.  Note  beauty, 
grace,  symmetry,  form.  Press  specimens  of  leaves  from  different  kinds  of  maple 
trees,  also  preserve  fruit  of  trees. 


APRIL. 

PLANTS. 

Germination  of  seeds — bean,  pea,  corn,  wheat. 

ANIMALS. 

Appearance  of  moths  and  butterflies.  Change  in  covering  of  cat, 
dog,  sheep.  Compare  eyes.  Imitate  sounds  made  by  cat,  dog  and 
sheep.     ■  •     . 


14 
ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Observation  of  temperature,  direction  of  wind,  number  of  foggy 
and  clear  days.     Compare  with  other  months. 

Relate  lengthening  day  to  change  in  movement  of  sun;  to  shadow 
at  noon.     Compare  with  previous  months. 

MINERALS. 

Examine  sand,  gravel,  loam  and  clay.  Value  of  earth  in  relation 
to  plant  life. 

NOTE. — Examine  dry  and  soaked  peas,  beans,  corn,  and  wheat.  Note  coats, 
scars  and  opening  near  the  scar. 

In  all  work  in  plant  life,  as  in  every  other  study,  thought  should  first  be  ac- 
quired, and  then  expression. 

Collect  larvae  during  the  fall,  permit  pupils  to  see  and  note  date  of  spinning 
cocoons,  and  appearance  of  insects. 

Animals  and  plants  should  be  studied  in  life  cycles. 

Relate  movement  of  sun  to  temperature  and  its  effect  upon  life. 

Encourage  pupils  to  plant  seeds  at  home  and  care  for  the  plants. 


MAY. 

PLANTS. 

Flowers;  buds,  color,  perfume,  honey;  pollen  distributed  by  in- 
sects, wind;  leaves — blade,  parallel  and  netted  veined. 

ANIMALS. 

Observe  habits  of  common  birds,  location  and  kinds  of  nests,  pro- 
tective coloration  of  feathers. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  clear,  cloudy  and  rainy  days  witli  April. 
Continued  observation  of  sun  and  shadow;  relate  to  temperature 
and  life. 

MINERALS. 
Study  of  soils. 

NOTE. — In  teaching  flowers,  technicalities  should  be  avoided.  Emphasize 
color,  form,  marking,  perfume,  honey.  Influences  which  produced  the  flower — 
earth,  air,  rain,  sun,  insects,  birds. 

Relate  soils  to  food  for  plants. 


15 


JUNE. 


PLANTS. 


Continued  study  of  flowers  and  leaves.  Parts  of  flowers — calyx, 
sepals,  corolla,  petals,  stamens,  carpel.     Plants  as  wholes. 

ANIMALS. 

Birds — hatching  of  young,  care  of  young,  food.  Compare  young 
of  cats,  dogs,  birds,  butterflies,  in  covering,  ability  to  help  themselves, 
food,  movements,  etc. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Thunderstorms,  hailstones.     Destructive  effects  of  each. 
Compare  length  of  day  and  night. 

NOTE. — Children  can  readily  distinguish  parts  of  fruit  blossoms.     The  dande- 
lion should  be  studied  as  a  whole. 
The  sparrow,  robin,  woodpecker  and  oriole  are  best  adapted  to  this  grade. 


16 


SECOND  GRADE. 


SEPTEMBER. 
PLANTS. 

Compare  growth  of  twigs  of  diiferent  trees,  of  different  years.  Oak, 
elm,  pine. 

Relation  of  insects  to  leaves  as  food,  as  nests,  as  depositories  for 
eggs.     Prevailing  color  in  same  leaves.     Plants  storing  food. 

ANIMALS. 

Migration  of  birds.  Compare  coats  of  squirrel  and  rabbit  as  to  tex- 
ture, color,  distribution,  warmth,  protection.  Habits  of  grasshop- 
pers. Observe  caterpillars  spin  cocoons.  Prepare  an  ant's'  nest.  See 
fifth  grade. 

MINERALS. 

Visit  a  stream;  forces  acting  upon  pebbles;  formation  of  marbles. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Daily  record  of  day,  date,  frost  or  dew,  direction  of  wind,  clouds 
or  fogs,  rainfall,  temperature.     Moon's  phases,  rising  and  setting  sun. 
Locate  places  in  the  horizon  where  the  sun  rises  and  sets. 

NOTE. — Weather  Records  should  be  kept  from  year  to  year  and  differences  in 
growth  of  different  years  should  be  referred  to  variations  in  atmospheric  condi- 
tions. 

Ohservations  of  life  infesting  trees  continued. 

Record  of  niigration  of  birds  same  as  Grade  I. 

Study  squirrel  and  rabbit  as  to  shape  of  body,  head,  ears,  mouth,  legs  and  paws. 

Oak,  pine,  turnips,  parsnips  store  food  for  animals. 

Remove  an  ant  hill  to  a  glass  fruit  jar  and  cover  with  brown  paper.  Food — 
sugar.     By  removing  the  paper,  halls,  'galleries,  and  habits  may  be  observed. 

Place  larvae  of  insects  in  an  empty  chalk-box  containing  leaves  on  which  they 
feed.  Slide  piece  of  glass  in  the  top  that  the  feeding  and  spinning  cocoons  may 
be  observed.     Record  dates. 

OCTOBER. 

PLANTS. 

Preparation  of  twigs  for  winter;  disappearance  of  sap,  drying 
leaves;  falling  leaves,  scars;  location  and  arrangements  of  buds;  struc- 
ture of  seed  for  distribution — wings,  pappus,  hooks.     Color  of  seeds. 


17 


ANIMATES. 


Habits  of  squirrel,  of  rabbif,  as  to  storing  food — how,  where,  kind 
and  quantity. 

MINERALS. 

Formation  of  pebbles.  Compare  as  to  transparent,  translucent  and 
opaque. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Effect  of  prevailing  wind  upon  clear,  cloudy,  wet  and  dry  weather. 
Direction  of  heaviest  rains.     Compare  with  September. 

Compare  October  and  September  as  to  rising  and  setting  sun, 
length  of  day  and  night. 

Constant  position  of  North  Star,  revolution  of  Great  Bear  around 
it;  pointers  in  Great  Bear. 

NOTE. — The  wind  distributed  seeds  are  supplied  with  wings  and  pappus, 
usually  found  on  tall  trees  accessible  to  wind.  Seeds  supplied  with  hooks  grow 
on  low  bushes  so  they  can  attach  themselves  to  passing  animals.  Before  seeds 
are  ripe  they  are  enclosed  in  green  pods  or  shucks,  color  of  leaves  of  plants.  When 
ripe,  they  are  brown  like  earth  upon  which  they  fall.  Compare  leaf  scars  of 
horse-chestnut  and  butternut. 

In  studying  squirrel  and  rabbit,  secure  a  live  specimen  if  possible.  Pupils 
enjoy  the  action,  and  the  results  are  more  effective.  Nothing  engenders  a  love 
for  animals  as  care  of  them.  Collect  nuts  for  food  of  squirrels.  Observe  manner 
of  eating,  manner  of  opening  shell.  Do  you  find  shells  in  the  woods  which 
have  been  opened  by  squirrels? 

Place  fragments  of  rock  in  bottle  of  water  and  shake  frequently.  Place  peb- 
bles of  different  sizes  in  bottle  and  shake  frequently.  Which  wears  away  more 
quickly? 

NOVEMBER. 

PLANTS. 

Dormant  condition  of  plant  life:  annuals — those  producing  many 
seeds;  biennials — those  storing  nourishment;  perennials — those  pro- 
ducing buds  and  seeds. 

ANIMALS. 

Squirrel  and  rabbit — manner  of  eating.  Food  of  squirrel  stored  by 
itself;  food  of  rabbit  stored  by  plants. 

MINERALS. 

Collect  and  classify  metals  and  minerals — very  soft,  soft,  hard  and 
verv  hard. 


18 
ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Frost  or  dew  more  common?  Effect  of  wind,  and  clear  or  cloudy 
night  upon  formation  of  frost  or  dew. 

Compare  course  of  sun  with  September  and  October.  Effect  upon 
length  of  day  and  night;  temperature. 

NOTE, — Relate  effect  of  shortening  of  days  upon  temperature  and  plant  life. 

Compare  milkweed,  turnip  and  tree.  Destiny  of  annuals  depends  entirely  upon 
production  of  seed.  Count  seeds  in  pods  of  one  milkweed  plant.  Trace  life 
history  of  biennial — appearance  of  root  and  stem  of  first  year;  root,  stem,  leaves, 
flowers,  fruit  of  second  year.  Count  seeds.  Show  relation  between  number  of 
seeds  prepared  and  number  of  buds  formed  by  perennials. 

Relate  minerals  and  metals  ta  material  stored  away  in  the  ground  for  man's 
use. 


DECEMBER. 

PLANTS. 

Effect  of  frost  upon  twigs,  buds,  and  seeds. 

ANIMALS. 

Compare  development  of  limbs  in  quadrupeds  and  bipeds;  position 
of  body  in  each;  use  of  upper  limbs.  Compare  squirrel  and  rabbit 
with  cat  and  dog. 

MINERALS. 

Effect  of  thawing  and  freezing  upon  roots  of  plants.  Power  of 
granite,  limestone,  sandstone,  coal,  sand,  clay,  iron  ore,  copper  ore  to 
absorb  and  retain  moisture. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Increased  or  decreased  cloudiness,  rainfall;  wind  more  or  less 
variable;  wind  preceding  rain  or  acx^ompanying  clearing  weather. 

Relation  of  line  sliowing  apparent  paths  of  sun  since  September. 
Winter  solstice. 

NOTE. — Pupils  should  have  definite  idea-as  to  rising  and  setting  of  sun,  its 
position  at  noon  in  December.  From  personal  observation  difference  between 
animal  and  plant  life  of  June  and  December  carefully  noted. 

Development  of  most  parts  of  animal  organism  is  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
food.  Erect  position  of  body  is  proportioned  to  development  of  fore-legs  as 
prehensile  organs. 

The  work  on  minerals  is  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  value  of  each  for 
building  purposes.  Weigh  in  air,  immerse  in  water  and  weigh  again  while  wet. 
Difference  in  weight  shows  absorptive  power.     Effect  of  frost— cracking  rock. 


19 


JANUARY. 

PLANTS. 

Dopmant  condition  of  plants. 

ANIMALS. 

Winter  condition  of  animal  life.  Compare  teeth  of  rabbit  and 
squirrel  with  dog  and  cat.     Compare  teeth  and  food  of  each  with  man. 

MINERALS. 

Recognize  different  kinds  of  iron  ore  by  color,  hardness,  crystals, 
weight.     Relate  to  steel  and  sharp  cutting  instruments  and  tools. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Month  of  greatest  change  in   temperature.     Compare  prevailing 
winds  with  previous  months.     Effect  of  temperature  upon  rainfall. 
Note  sun  at  noon;  apparent  movement,  effect  upon  day  and  night. 

NOTE. — Effect  of  frost  upon  germination.  Snow  a  warm  covering.  A  poor 
conductor  of  heat,  excludes  cold  and  prevents  radiation  of  heat.  Relate  pre- 
vailing winds  to  frost  and  snow. 

Pupils  should  be  led  to  see  that  animals  use  their  claws  for  digging,  and  their 
teeth  for  cutting  and  tearing  their  food,  but  man  has  too  many  demands  for  his 
physical  organism  and  is  forced  to  construct  tools  for  his  use. 


FEBRUARY. 
PLANTS. 

Winter  condition  of  trees. 

ANIMALS. 

Compare  structure  of  head,  hand  and  teeth  of  different  animals; 
effect  of  development  of  one  upon  the  other.  Compare  jaw,  teeth  and 
hand  of  squirrel,  rabbit  and  man. 

MINERALS. 

Recognize  different  kinds  of  copper  ore  by  color,  hardness,  crystals 
and  weight.     Uses. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  snowfall,  rainfall  and  fogs  with  previous  months. 
Note  lengthening  day;  morning  or  evening  longer.     Movement  of 
sun  on  horizon. 


20 

NOTE. — Shape  of  tree,  angle  of  branching,  development  of  tree. 

Compare  head  of  cat  or  dog,  sheep  or  cow,  rabbit  or  squirrel,  and  human 
teeth. 

Relation  of  lengthening  of  day  to  enlivening  of  bark  and  swelling  of  buds. 

Use  of  copper  for  wires;  value  to  man.  Man's  superiority  over  other  animals 
in  his  use  *of  tools. 

MARCH. 
PLANTS. 

First  awakening  of  plant  life;  select  a  tree  for  accurate  and  sys- 
tematic stud}' ;  ditTerence  between  a  tree  and  s,hrub. 

ANIMALS. 

Return  of  birds,  appearance  of  insects.  Natural  History  Calendar. 
Protective  coloration  of  squirrel  and  rabbit. 

MINERALS. 

Study  soils  in  relation  to  plant  life;  power  of  different  kinds  of  soil 
to  absorb  and  retain  moisture. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Highest  and  lowest  temperature  during  the  month;  character  and 
amount  of  cloudiness  in  March,  December  and  September. 

Compare  number  of  rainy  days,  in  autumn,  winter  and  spring. 

Vernal  equinox;  seasons  of  year  since  autumnal  equinox;  rising  and 
setting  sun;  length  of  shadow  at  noon. 

NOTE. — Observations  should  be  recorded  on  Natural  History  Calendar.  Fos- 
ter an  interest  in  Nature,  and  gradual  unfolding  of  life. 

Select  a  tree  convenient  for  constant  observation.  Measure  diameter,  height 
of  branching,  etc.  Secure  transverse  and  longitudinal  sections  of  wood  of  the 
same  kind  of  tree.  Note  carefully  color,  hardness,  softness,  toughness  of  bark 
of  different  years'  growth.  Location  and  arrangement  of  buds.  Study  color, 
size,  covering,  protection,  etc.  Record  first  appearance  of  leaves,  flowers  and 
fruit.     Study  continued  to  end  of  year. 

Nesting  habits  of  birds;  location  of  nests,  material  used.  Birds  of  dull  color 
have  open  nests, — brilliant  colors  concealed  nests. 

Relate  color  of  squirrel  to  bark  of  tree,  color  of  rabbit  to  ground  and  weeds. 
Why  are  black  squirrels  disappearing? 

Study  meadow-lark,  owl,  duck,  snipe,  tanager,  duck;  relation  to  color,  structure 
to  environment  and  manner  of  getting  food. 


APRIL. 
PLANTS. 

Observe  germination  of  seeds,  different  parts  of  seed;  ratio  of  leaf 
buds  and  flower  buds. 


21 


ANIMALS. 


Earthworm — food,  manner  of  moving,  value  to  mankind.  Relate 
earthworm  to  prei)aration  of  soil  for  plants.  Compare  earthworm 
and  squirrel  and  rabbit,  as  to  appearance,  senses,  movements,  manner 
of  gettUig  food. 


MINERALS. 

Power  of  different  soils  to  absorb  and  retain  heat, 
life. 


Relate  to  plant 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Wind  that  accompanies  wet,  dry,  clear,  cloudy  or  foggy  weather. 
Difference  between  April  and  winter  rains. 

Compare  course  of  sun  with  December,  reason  for  shortening  of 
shadow;  relation  of  length  of  shadow  to  temperature. 

NOTE. — Measure  a  gill  of  corn,  wheat,  beans  and  peas;  soak  twenty-four 
hours.  Measure.  Which  absorb  water?  Let  each  pupil  examine  a  dry  and 
soaked  seed.  Plant  seed  in  different  kinds  of  soil— clay,  sand  and  loam.  Place 
in  light,  shade,  and  dark  to  detect  influence  of  light  upon  plant.  Record  time  i.£ 
planting,  first  appearance  above  ground,  dropping  of  exhausted  cotyledons. 
Seed. 
Planted. 
Depth. 

Above  ground. 
Cotyledons. 
Leaves. 
Leaves. 
Position. 
Margins. 
Shapes. 

To  compare  gradual  dev'elopment  of  plant,  pull  up,  press,  and  mount  specimens 
on  alternate  days,  showing  development  of  different  parts  from  seed  to  seed. 
Development  may  also  be  observed  by  being  placed  in  bottles  of  alcohol.  Care- 
fully date  each  specimen.    Plant  acorns  in  yard. 

Fill  a  large  sponge  with  flaxseed  and  place  in  a  shallow  dish  filled  with  water 
Keep  moist. 

Mark  off  a  yard  square  and  observe  the  work  of  earthworms.  Each  morning, 
carefully  collect  castings  and  measure.  Some  idea  of  amount  of  work  being 
done  in  renewing  and  fertilizing  soil.  Study  structure,  food,  habits,  senses; 
adaptation  of  structure  to  environment.  Pupils  should  be  led  ta  see  that  each 
plant  and  animal  is  adapted  to  perform  its  function  in  the  economy  of  nature. 

Relate  April  showers  to  increasing  temperature — greater  heat,  greater  evapora- 
tion, consequently  greater  condensation. 


Bean. 

Artril 

Pea. 

Corn. 

Wheat. 

April. 
1  inch. 

April. 

Above. 

Below. 

Below. 

Below. 

Netted. 

Netted. 

Parallel. 

Parallel. 

Compound. 

Compound. 

Simple. 

.      Simple. 

Alternate. 

Alternate.     ■ 

Alternate. 

Alternate. 

Entire. 

Entire. 

Entire. 

Entire. 

MAY. 

PLANTS. 

Reason  for  early  appearance  of  wild  flowers;  food;  protection  and 
color  of  spring  flowers;  advantage  of  color;  unfolding  of  buds.  Vena- 
tion. 


22 

ANIMALS. 

Study  snails — land  and  water  snails;  difference  in  structure,  shells, 
food,  etc.  Compare  with  earthworm,  as  to  senses,  manner  of  moving, 
muscular  action,  food  protections.  Compare  snail  shells  with  other 
shells. 

MINERALS. 

Examine  soils  carefully.  Origin  of  soil — decayed  vegetation  and 
disintegration  of  rock.     Relate  qualities  of  soil  to  vegetation. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Number  of  frosts  or  dews;  compare  with  November;  temperature  of 
nights;  direction  of  prevailing  wind.     Relation  of  wind  to  rainfall. 

Lengthening  of  days;  changing  course  of  sun  and  effects  upon  all 
life. 

NOTE. — Compare  roots  of  spring  beauty,  crow-foot,  water-cress,  Indian-turnip, 
tulip,  crocus.  Relate  food  stored  by  plants  in  roots  to  nourishment  provided  by 
cotyledons.  Rapid  growth  due  to  food  already  assimilated.*  Color  to  attract 
insects  and  effect  fertilization  of  flower.  Relate  lengthening  days  and  increasing 
temperature  to  appearance  of  wild  flowers  and  abundance  of  pond  life.  Relate 
falling  leaves  to  formation  of  vegetable  mould.  Effect  of  rain  upon  surface  of 
ground  to  disintegration  of  rocks. 

Note  difference  in  growth  of  plants  grown  in  sand  and  loam.    Reason. 

Make  a  collection  of  spring  flowers. 


JUNE. 


PLANTS.  * 

Continue  study  of  flowers.     Arrangement  of  leaves  on  twigs;  simple 
and  compound,  netted  and  parallel  veined. 

ANIMALS. 

Insects;  compare  ants,  spiders,  flies  and  beetles;  likenesses  and 
differences  in  habits.     Usefulness. 

MINERALS.  '    ' 

Compare  soil  used  as  homes  by  ants,  and  earthworms.     Effect  of 
each  upon  soil. 

Elementary  geography. 

♦Compare  annual  and  perennial  rootstalks. 


23 

NOTE. — Parts  of  leaves — petiole,  blade,  midrib,  veins,  veinlets,  base,  apex, 
margin.  Distinguish  between  simple,  palmately  and  pinnately  compound. 
Press  and  mount  specimens  of  all  species  of  oak  leaves.  Make  a  collection  of 
acorns. 

Recognize  linear,  lanceolate,  oblong,  elliptical,  and  oval  forms.  Bases—heart- 
shaped  and  shield-shaped.  Apex— acute  and  obtuse.  Margins — entire,  toothed, 
notched. 

Function  of  veins — to  carry  sap;  blade — to  absorb  moisture  and  carbon 
dioxide. 

Flower:  Calyx — sepals,  corolla — petals,  stamens — filament,  anther  and  pollen; 
carpel — ovary,  ovules,  style,  stigma. 

Study  syringa  and  pansy. 

Parts  of  insects:  head — eyes,  antennae,  mouth-parts.  Compare  life  history 
of  each — egg,  larva,  pupa,  image;  community  life  of  ants.  Habits  of  spiders 
and  beetles.     Encourage  habit  of  personal  observation  on  part  of  pupils. 

The  study  of  the  ant  is  suggested  for  this  grade,  being  accessible  and  harmless. 
The  habits,  home  making  and  community  life  can  better  be  observed  in  a  nest 
than  in  the  ground;  food  getting  and  storing  by  watching  them  in  the  grass  and 
on  sidewalks.  Study  members  of  the  household: — queen,  workers,  warriors,  etc. 
Note  care  of  young,  intelligence,  communication;  battles,  excursions  for  food,  etc. 


24 


THIRD  GRADE. 


SEPTEMBER. 

PLANTS. 

Relate  growth  of  twigs  on  north,  south,  east  and  west  side  of  trees 
to  symmetrical  development  of  tree.  Study  pine — type  of  exeur- 
rent  tree,  fruit  tree — type  of  deliquescent  tree.  Note  color  of  leaves 
on  different  parts  of  tree.  Relate  coloration  of  seed  to  distribution  by 
animals  as  food,  by  animals  in  covering,  by  wind. 

ANIMALS. 

Distinguish  between  vertebra  ted,  molluscous,  articulated  and  radi- 
ated animals.  Food,  homes,  and  means  of  protection.  Use  familiar 
examples  of  each — bird  or  fish,  o^^ster  or  clam,  insects,  starfish,  etc. 
Review  and  classify  animals  previously  studied. 

MINERALS. 

Compare  sandstone  and  limestone.  Sedimentary  rock.  Classify 
rocks  in  your  neighborhood. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Evaporation;  dew,  frost,  rain. 

Daily  record  of  day,  date,  direction  of  wind,  clouds  or  fogs,  rainfall, 
temperature,  barometer,  moon's  phases,  morning  and  evening  stars. 

Rotation  and  revolution  of  the  earth;  inclination  of  axis;  day  and 
night;  change  of  seasons;  Autumnal  Equinox;  Little  Bear,  Jupiter 
and  Venus. 

NOTE. — Emphasize  geology  in  this  grade,  and  do  as  much  field  work  as  pos- 
sible. Take  advantage  of  any  natural  features  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school 
house. 

Forces  at  work:  air,  water,  wind,  frost;  building  coasts;  crumbling  cliff;  deep- 
ening gulch;  filling  marsh. 

Note  erosion  and  sedimentation,  in  school  yard  and  street.  Always  relate 
physical  characteristics  of  minerals  and  soils  to  erosion  and  change  in  earth 
surface. 

Relate  lime  in  solution  in  water  to  life  in  water,  and  beds  of  limestone. 


OCTOBER. 

PLANTS. 

Compare  new  and  old  growth  of  twigs  as  to  color,  hardness,  soft- 
ness, texture;  seeds  growing  on  twigs — wings,  hard,  round,  shell;  near 
ground — i)appus,  hooks  and  prickles. 

ANIMALS. 

Relate  color  of  animals  to  their  environment.  Protection  and  at- 
tractive coloration.  Frogs,  toads,  grasshoppers,  quail,  wild  cat,  polar 
bear,  leopard,  tiger,  etc.     Relate  to  food-getting. 

MINERALS. 

stratified  and  unstratified  rock;  limestone,  sandstone,  slate,  granite 
and  marble. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Condensation — formation  of  rain,  snow,  hail,  frost,  dew,  clouds. 
History  of  a  raindrop. 

Different  forms  of  clouds:  Cirrus,  Cumulus,  Shatus,  Nimbus. 
Elevation  of  each. 

Time  and  place  of  rising  of  new,  full  and  waning  moon.  Effect  of 
day  and  night  upon  life. 

Movements  of  eTupiter  and  Venus. 

NOTE. — Powder  gray  sandstone,  put  into  a  jar  of  water,  shake  contents  and 
allow  to  settle.  Next  day  drop  powdered  red-sandstone  and  continue  for  sev- 
eral days.  Result — stratified  material.  Drop  sand,  gravel,  loam,  clay  into  a 
jar  of  water.  S'hake  and  allow  to  settle.  Result — stratified,  assorted  ^material. 
Dissolve  lime  in  water  and  allow  to  settle. 


NOVEMBER. 

PLANTS. 

Mode  if  distribution  of  seeds  of  animals,  biennials,  and  perennials. 
Effect  of  frost  upon  twigs,  scaly  and  naked  buds. 
Preparation  of  plants  for  winter. 

ANIMALS. 

Preparation  of  animals  for  winter — thickening  of  coat,  preparation 
of  homes  and  storing  food.  Relation  of  structure  of  animals  to  man- 
ner of  getting  food ;  land  and  water  animals. 


2G 
MINERALS. 

Life  history  of  a  pebble — j)art  of  cliff  or  rock;  acted  upon  by  air, 
water  and  frost.  Compare  sandstone,  granite  and  liniestone  pebbles 
— as  to  color,  form,  smoothness,  hardness,  etc. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  rainfall  with  October  and  September.  Forms  of  clouds 
most  common — high  or  low.  Relation  of  temperature  to  cloudiness 
and  rain;  relation  of  cloudiness  to  rainfall. 

Compare  variation  of  shadow  of  October,  September,  and  Novem- 
ber.    When  greatest?     When  least? 

NOTE. — No  work  can  be  more  conducive  to  the  cultivation  of  the  imagination 
than  to  trace  the  history  of  a  pebble.     Moral  lesson:  contact  with  different  con- 
ditions in  wearing  off  the  rough  edges.     Difference  in  color  and  texture  show 
different  origin;  bands  and  faults  show  varied  experience  in  life  history.     Phy 
sical  forces  acting. 


DECEMBER. 

PLANTS. 

Examination  of  horse-chestnut,  maple  and  fruit  trees.  Compare 
growth,  bark,  scars,  number  of  arrangement  and  covering  of  buds 
formed.     Probable  fate  of  buds. 

ANIMALS. 

Distinguish  between  vertebrated  animals;  mammals,  birds,  fishes, 
reptiles,  amphibians. 

MINERALS. 

Action  of  acids  upon  sandstone,  limestone,  marble,  granite,  mica, 
quartz,  coral,  shell.  Relate  to  formation  of  caves — chemical  forces 
acting. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Influence  of  storm  upon  barometer.     Effect  upon  temperature. 
Winter  Solstice.     Compare  shadow  of  September  21  and  Decem- 
ber 21. 

NOTE. — Place  small  piece  of  rock  in  test-tube  and  note  effect  of  dilute  sulphu- 
ric or  hydrochloric  acid  upon  it.  Result.  Note  which  one  dissolves  most  readily. 
Beds  of  rock  best  adapted  to  formation  of  acids.  Effect  of  water,  holding  acid  *.n 
solution,  upon  lime  rock.  Why  was  it  possible  for  Mammoth  Cave  to  have  been 
formed  where  it  is?    Why  is  the  Blue  Grass  region  so  fertile? 

Compare  physical  and  chemical  forces  acting. 


'21 


JANUARY. 

PLANTS. 


Dormant  condition  of  plant  life;  death  of  all  annuals;  roots  of  bi- 
ennials; stems  or  perennials. 

ANIMALS. 

Compare  teeth,  hoofs,  and  claws  of  rodents,  carnivorous,  herbiver- 
ous,  and  omniverous  animals;  teeth — trown,  fangs,  enamel,  incisors, 
canine,  bicuspid,  molars. 

MINERALS. 

Fossil  animals,  teeth,  shells,  plants,  leaves,  etc.  Identify  fossil 
animals  and  plants  with  living  things.  Conditions  of  fossilization. 
Change  in  earth  conditions.     Account  for  fossil  ferns  in  coal. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Variation  of  temperature  before,  during  and  after  a  storm;  varia- 
tion of  barometer  and  thermometer. 

Effect  of  sun's  position  on  temperature.  When  do  shadows  corres- 
pond and  differ  most? 

NOTE. — Relate  fossil  animals  and  plants  to  kind  and  quantity  of  life  extant 
in  remote  ages.     Compare  similar  life  of  the  present  day. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  make  collections  of  fossil  plants  and  animals 
and  to  look  for  them  in  limestone  used  for  building  purposes.  At  first  it  is 
sufficient  to  be  able  to  distinguish  them  by  sight. 


FEBRUARY. 

PLANTS. 

Examine  trees  for  frozen  buds  and  twigs;  roots  and  blades  of 
grasses;  trunks  of  trees  for  mosses. 

ANIMALS. 

Begin  study  of  birds;  environment — earth,  air,  water.  Relate  struc- 
ture to  environment.  Aerial  birds — long,  slender  bodies,  powerful 
wings;  terrestial  birds — large  bodies,  strong  feet,  small  wings; 
aquatic  birds — boat-shaped  bodies,  short  legs,  webbed  feet,  or  long 
legs,  long  neck,  long  bill;  eagle,  chicken,  duck  or  crane. 

MINERALS. 

Continue  study  of  fossil  animals.     Change  of  structure  in  earth's 
crust;  erosion,  sedimentation,  upheaval,  denudation. 
Life  history  of  a  fossil  fern.  ^  \ 


28 
ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  temperature,  barometer,  rainfall,  fogs,  clouds,  wind  with 
previous  months;  with  months  whose  days  are  about  the  same  length. 
When  do  shadows  correspond  and  differ  most. 

NOTE. — Compare  fossil  ferns  with  ferns  growing  at  present.     Study  a  coal 
mine.    Life  history  of  a  piece  of  coal. 


•MARCH. 
PLANTS. 

Begin  close  and  comparative  study  of  hoise-chestnut,  maple  and 
fruit  trees.     Environments,  shape,  symmetry. 

ANIMALS.  '       ! 

Continue  study  of  birds.     Manner  of  getting  food,  etc.     Birds  of 
prey,  climbers,  perchers,  scratchers,  waders,  swimmers  and  divers. 

MINERALS. 

Recognize  different  kinds  of  iron  ore  and  coal  by  color,  weight, 
crystals  and  external  appearance. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  March  with  September.     Note  frost,  or  dew,  wind,  clouds, 
fogs,  rainfall,  temperature,  barometer,  sunrise  and  sunset. 
Relative  position  of  earth  on  September  21  and  March  21. 

NOTE. — In  this  grade  children  should  get  some  general  ideas  of  silvi-culture 
and  forestry,  and  economic  importance  of  trees  and  forest  protection.  Nuts  as  a 
food  product. 


APRIL. 

PLANTS. 

Germination  of  seeds;  continue  tree  study. 

ANIMALS. 

Continue  study  of  birds;  parts  of  bird — head,  body,  wings  and  legs. 
Nestinjj:  habits  of  birds.     Relate  color  to  nesting  habits. 

MINERALS. 

Reduction  of  iit)n.     C()ni[>are  jng  iion,  cast  iron,  wrought  ii-on  and 
sleel.    Uses  of  iron.     Iron  as  a  factor  in  civilization. 


29 


ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 


Compare  April  showers  with  winter  rains;  temperature  of  nights 
and  days.  Explain  dift'erences  of  character  and  position  of  clouds  in 
winter  and  spring. 

Compare  variation  of  shadow  with  November. 

NOTE. — Germinate    peach*    apple,    horse-chestnut,  maple    and    pine    seeds. 
Relate  protection  of  the  embroyo  to  use  of  fruits  for  food. 
Compare  structure  of  birds'  nests  with  the  homes  of  other  animals,  and  man. 
Visit  a  rolling  mill  if  possible  and  learn  the  reduction  of  iron  from  observation. 


MAY. 

PLANTS. 

Paris  of  flower — floral  enveloi)e  and  essential  organs.  Compare 
fruit,  blossoms,  maple  aad  horse-chestnut. 

ANIMALS. 

Continue  study  of  birds;  hatching  of  young;  care  of  young;  manner 
of  walking,  of  movement,  of  flight.  Relate  nesting  habits,  and  food  of 
birds  to  trees. 

MINERALS. 

Recognize  different  kinds  of  iron  ore.  Mining  interests  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Influence  of  April  showers  upon  May  flowers.  Wind  that  accom- 
panies highest  and  lowest  temperatures. 

Compare  long  twilights  of  summer  with  short  twilights  of  winter. 

NOTE. — Pupils  should  be  led  to  see  that  the  energy  of  the  plant  is  directed 
toward  maturing  seeds;  that  each  part  of  the  plant  has  its  own  work  to  do;  that 
color,  form,  texture,  perfume,  are  modifications  of  effect  cross-fertilization  of  the 
flowers. 


JUNE. 

PLANTS. 

Continue  study  of  flowers;  plan  of  flowers.  Distinguish  between 
imperfect  and  incomplete  flowers.  Continue  tree  study.  Leaves; 
simpU'  and  compound,  paraHel  and  netted  veined. 


30 
ANIMALS. 

Study  bees  in  relation  to  fertilization  of  flowers.  Continue  study 
of  birds.  Feathers:  shaft,  vane,  quili,  barbs,  barbules.  Compare 
feathers  on  different  parts  of  body.  Relate  to  food  getting.  Eagle's 
wing,  feathers  of  an  owl,  tail  of  a  woodpecker,  body  of  a  duck,  wings 
of  an  ostrich. 

MINERALS. 

Mining  of  coal.     Drilling  of  oil  wells.    Importance  of  petroleum. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Which  month  had  largest  number  of  clear  days,  rainy  days;  which 
coldest  month;  which  warmest.     Extremes  of  temperature. 

Summer  Solstice.  Relative  position  of  earth  and  sun  June  21. 
Compare  sunrise,  sunset  and  sun  at  noon  with  September,  December 
and  March. 

NOTE. — The  study  of  bees  is  a  very  interesting  subject.  Their  community 
life,  habits,  food,  keen  sense  perception  furnish  a  fine  opportunity  for  investiga- 
tion. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  imitate  the  calls  of  the  birds,  and  note  manner 
of  communication. 

Influence  of  iron  and  coal  upon  civilization. 


31 


FOURTH  GRADE. 


SEPTEMBER. 


PLANTS. 

Each  pupil  select  tree  for  systematic  study  throughout  the  year. 
Protective  coloratiou  of  leaves  and  fruit;  developmeot  of  flowers  into 
fruit;  form  of  fruit — fleshy,  stone,  dry. 

Lower  forms  of  plant  life — algae,  fungi,  and  lichens. 

ANIMALS. 

Swamp  life.  Observe  larval  stage  of  insects.  Compare  clam  and 
oyster,  as  to  food,  habits,  structure,  movements,  protection,  nature 
of  shell. 

MINERALS. 

Character  of  soil  formed  in  swamps  and  marshes.  Relate  to  peat 
bogs. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Magnetic  needle;  compass;  construction  and  use.  Relate  to  iron 
and  steel. 

Dissolve,  salt,  alum,  lime  in  water.  Relate  solution  to  erosion  of 
rock,  and  lime  in  solution  to  shells  and  bones  of  animals. 

Daily  record  of  day,  date,  frost  or  dew,  clouds  or  fogs,  rainfall, 
temperature,  barometer,  sunrise,  sunset,  morning  star,  evening  star, 
moon's  phases,  moonrise,  moonset. 

Measure  slant  of  sun's  rays  on  shadow  stick.  Autumnal  E(iuinox, 
September  21;  path  of  sun.  Mars,  Mercury. 

NOTE. — Systematic  study  for  trees  following  outline  for  tree  study.  Environ- 
ment, shape,  parts. 

Observe  fallen  leaves  exposed  to  the  air,  and  those  in  streams  or  ponds. 

Prepare  a  self-sustaining  aquarium,  showing  the  co-operation  of  animal  and 
plant  life. 

In  this  grade  pupils  should  get  a  glimpse  of  the  evolution  of  plants  and  animals 
and  their  interdependence. 

a 


32 


OCTOBER. 


PLANTS. 

Protection  of  unripe  nuts;  distribution  of  uuts  and  seeds;  different 
appliances  for  distribution.  Make  collections  of  seeds  in  their  pods. 
Storing  of  seeds  bj  insects  and  animals. 

ANIMALS. 

Careful  and  systematic  study  of  insects  hibernating  and  non  hi- 
bernating. Habits  of  turtle  and  crayfish.  Animals  that  store  food 
and  those  that  do  not.  • 

MINERAL.S. 

Study  coal.  Collect  carbon  from  burning  candle,  sugar,  |)aper, 
wood,  meat,  wool  and  coal.     Kelate  carbon  io  plants  and  animals. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Influence  of  mountain  ranges  and  large  bodies  of  water  upon  rain- 
fall and  temperature. 

Compare  variation  of  shadow  with  September.  Compare  shorten- 
ing of  days  in  morning  and  evening.  Change  in  position  of  constella- 
tions and  stars. 

NOTE. — Pupils  should  be  led  to  regard  the  sun  as  a  great  benefactor — a  great 
store-house  of  energy,  supplying  all  our  needs,  clothing  the  world  with  beauty 
and  majesty,  and  giving  us  power  to  respond  to  the  influences  of  creation. 

Coal  should  be  regarded  as  energy  stored  up  during  ages.  Distinguish  be- 
tween anthracite  and  bituminous  coal,  cannel,  coke  and  charcoal.  Formation  of 
coal  (Shaler's  First  Book  in  Geology).  Relate  to  plants.  Account  for  presence  of 
carbon  in  sugar,  paper,  wool,  meat,  etc.  Forces  which  produce  different  varie- 
ties of  coal. 


NOVEMBER. 

PLANTS. 

Select  annual  and  biennial  plants  and  trace  life  histor^t;  as — pea 
or  morning-glory,  turnip  or  carrot.  Compare  root,  stem  and  leaves 
with  aquatic  plants.     Storing  of  nourishment;  preparation  for  winter. 

ANIMALS. 

Coverings  of  animals;  change  in  coverings  for  ditl'erent  s<nisons. 
Value  of  skins,  hair,  wool,  shell  in  commercial  world. 


33 


MINERALS. 


Contiuued  study  of  coal.  Formation  of  coke  and  chat-coal;  illumin- 
ating gas;  other  products.     Relate  to  comfort  and  protection  gf  man. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Relation  of  barometer  to  change  of  weather.     Compare  fluctuations 
of  barometer  with  September  and  October. 
Relate  change  in  animals  and  plants  to  position  of  sun. 

NOTE. — The  structure  and  covering  of  animals  should  be  closely  related  to 
their  environment  and  change  of  seasons.  The  economic  relations  of  animal 
life  should  be  emphasized.  Call  attention  to  man's  dependence  upon  Nature  for 
his  necessities,  comforts  and  luxuries. 


DECEMBER. 

PLANTS. 

Dormant  condition  of  plant  life. 

ANIMALS. 

Animal  movements.  Compare  horse,  cow,  dog,  cat,  sheep,  squir- 
rel, and  man  as  to  manner  of  walking.  Compare  hoofs,  claws,  paws, 
hands.     Relate  to  homes,  manner  of  getting  food,  intelligence. 

MINERALS. 

Distribution  of  carbon;  compounds  in  all  mineral,  vegetable,  and 
animal  matter;  obtained  by  chemical  change.  Relate  carbon  to  plant 
life — food  of  animals;  interchange  of  carbon  between  plants  and  ani- 
mals. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  variation  of  temperature  before,  during  and  after  storm. 
Compare  temperature,  barometer,  rainfall,  fogs,  clouds,  wind  with 
previous  months.     Trace  snow  line  on  signal  service  map. 

Compare  area  covered  by  beam  of  light  in  September  and  December. 
Relate  heat  received  in  different  latitudes  to  life. 

NOTE. — Lead  pupils  to  see  stores  of  wealth  deposited  for  man's  convenience, 
comfort  and  progress.    Civilization  is  man's  power  to  overcome  his  environment. 


34 


JANUARY. 

PLANTS. 

Effect  of  frost  upon  plant  life. 
ANIMALS. 

Food  of  animals  that  do  not  migrate  or  hibernate. 

MINERALS. 

Study  quartz  crystals;  form,  size,  color,  hardness,  texture,  varie- 
ties. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  snow  line  with  December;  when  farthest  north;  farthest 
south;  range  of  latitude  covered;  influence  of  Great  Lakes. 

Compare  marks  on  shadow  stick  with  previous  months;  effect  upon 
temperature. 

NOTE. — Relate  effect  of  frost  upon  plants,  scarcity  of  food  of  animals,  the 
southern  limit  of  snow  line,  the  length  of  shadow  to  movement  of  sun. 

Examine  snow  crystals.     Note  form,  size,  and  law  of  crystallization. 

Saturate  solution  of  salt,  alum,  chalk,  soda,  blue  vitriol,  copperas,  bichromate 
of  potash.  Note  temperature  of  water  in  solution.  Place  solution  in  shallow 
dish  or  bottle  with  a  string  suspended  in  it.  Evaporate  rapidly;  slowly.  Relate 
solution  to  erosion  of  rocks;  crystallization  to  crystalline  rocks,  quartz-crystals, 
geodes,  etc. 

FEBRUARY. 
PLANTS. 

Any  awakening  in  plant  life.     Observe  trees  for  mosses. 

ANIMALS. 

Any  appearance  of  animal  life. 

MINERALS. 

Distinguish  different  species  of  quartz.  Relate  hardness  of  granite 
t©  quartz.     Association  of  quartz  with  other  minerals. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  snow  line  and  zero  isotherm  with  January.  Influence  of 
wind  upon  course  of  storm. 

Compare  angle  of  sun's  rays  at  New  Orleans  and  Detroit.  Com- 
pare relative  amount  of  heat  and  light;  effect  upon  life. 


35 

NOTE. — Relate  effect  of  frost  upon  rocks  to  rapid  disintegratfon.     Effect  of 
chemical  and  physical  forces  upon  calcareous  and  silicious  rock. 

Read  Ruskin's  "Ethics  of  the  Dust"  in  connection  with  the  study  of  crystals. 


MARCH. 

PLANTS. 

Watch  first  awakening*  of  the  tree  following  outline  for  "Tree 
Study.'' 

ANIMALS. 

Note  first  appearance  of  insects.  Note  beauty  of  color,  delicacy  of 
marking.  Compare  fully  developed  insect  with  larva;  what  like- 
nesses and  differences — food,  manner  of  feeding,  locomotion. 

Pond  life — spawn  of  frogs  and  toads;  development  of  tadpoles  into 
frogs.     Crayfish;  turtles;  snails. 

MINERALS. 

Water.  Place  a  drop  of  salt,  hydrant,  lime,  rain,  filtered  or  distilled 
water  on  a  clean  piece  of  glass,  and  evaporate.  Explain  result.  Re- 
late to  animal  life  in  water,  and  beds  of  lime-stone. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  lowest  and  highest  temperature  of  March  with  September 
and  December.  Compare  most  northern  and  southern  isotherm  of 
September  and  March. 

Vernal  Equinox.  Angle  of  sun's  rays  with  horizon;  relate  to  lati- 
tude.    Relation  of  latitude  to  climate. 

NOTE. — Relate  lime,  shell  life  and  coral  in  ocean  to  beds  of  limestone.  En- 
courage pupils  to  make  collections  of  land  and  sea  shells;  note  beauty  of  texture, 
color,  form,  markings,  spines,  etc. 


APRIL. 

PLANTS. 

Continue  tree  study.     Examine  lichens,  fungi,  for  spores.     Note 
color,  texture,  form,  growth  of  lower  forms  of  plants. 

ANIMALS. 

Study  dragon  fly.     Compare  life  history  with  that  of  a  moth. 


:^6 


MINERALS. 


Effect  of  rain  upon  soil.  Transporting  power  of  a  stream  of  rapid 
and  slow  velocity.  Effect  of  stream  carrying-  sediment  and  one 
which  does  not.     Relation  of  hardness  of  minerals  to  erosion. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

What  isotherm  passes  through  Detroit.     Compare  this  with  Oc- 
tober.    Compare  temperature  and  rainfall  with  October. 
Compare  force  of  sunbeam  in  Detroit  with  December. 

NOTE. — Pupils  should  observe  forces  acting  about  them,  and  should  be  led  to 
see  the  great  sculpturing  of  the  face  of  Nature  produced  by  same  forces  acting 
on  a  greater  scale.    Relate  hardness  of  rock  to  resistance  to  erosion. 


MAY. 

PLANTS. 

Compare  flowering  and  flowerless  plants;  flowers  and  spore  cases. 

ANIMALS. 

Study  May  fly — egg  deposited  in  water,  long  larval  period,  nymph,  ^ 
adult.     Compare  parts  with  other  insects. 

MINERALS. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  make  field  excursions,  to  collect 
and  classify  minerals  studied  during  the  year;  to  verify  by  observation 
facts  learned  about  erosion  and  sedimentation. 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Variation  of  sun's  rays  indicated  by  shadow  stick:  changing  angle 
of  sun's  rays  (indicated  by  shadow^  on  stick  changing)  to  horizon; 
effect  upon  temperature  and  life. 

NOTE. — In  early  spring  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  go  to  the  woods  and 
fields  and  enjoy  the  beauty  of  Nature  in  its  entirety.  Discourage  any  careless 
plucking  and  destroying  of  flowers,  birds,  insects,  or  life  of  any  kind. 


JUNE. 

PLANTS. 

Continue  study  of  flowers  and  j)lan(s.     Follow  outline. 


37 

ANIMALS. 

Reptiles:  Compare  snakes  and  turtles — scales,  shells,  manner  of 
locomotion,  kinds  of  food,  manner  of  taking  food,  manner  of  laying 
and  hatching  eggs. 

MINERALS. 

Co-operation  of  mineral,  plant  and  animal  world.  ^ 

ELEMENTARY  GEOGRAPHY. 

Compare  isotherm  of  this  month  with  last.  The  same  isotherm  in 
plains,  mountains  near  coast  lines;  compare  variations  of  isotherms  in 
north  and  south.  Reasons.  Regions  of  lowest  and  highest  tempera- 
ture. 

NOTE. — If  the  work  is  carefully  presented  in  the  first  three  grades,  by  the  end 
of  the  fourth  grade  pupils  should  have  a  good,  general  idea  of  the  mineral,  plant 
and  animal  worlds.  No  attempt  should  be  made  at  any  scientific  classifications, 
except  that  which  comes  from  the  personal  experience  of  the  pupils.  Lead  the 
pupils  to  see,  enjoy,  love  and  reflect  upon  the  beauties  and  wonders  of  creation. 


38 


FIFTH  GRADE. 


SEPTEMBER. 
PLANTS. 

Make  collection  of  fruits — fleshy,  stone,  dry.  Compare  color,  tex- 
ture of  covering;  color,  texture,  and  marking  of  pit;  parts  of  flower 
developed  into  fruit. 

Fermentation:  Place  bottles  of  grape,  apple,  peach  juice  where 
cool,  warm,  light  and  dark.  Note  effect  and  conditions  most  favor- 
able to  it.  During  fermentation  place  a  lighted  taper  in  jar;  effect 
upon  flame.     What  might  force  the  cork  out? 

ANIMALS. 

Make  breeding  cage,  collect  larvae  on  tomato,  cabbage,  milkweed, 
caraway,  maple,  oak,  chestnut.  Supply  appropriate  food;  watch 
changes. 

MINERALS. 

1.  Pebbles.     Make  collections;  distinguish — 

(a)  River,  ocean;  life  history  of  each. 

(b)  Glacial;  life  history  of  each. 

(c)  Conglomerates;  life  history  of  each. 

(d)  Breccia;  life  history  of  each. 

NOTE. — Children  should  now  be  able  to  do  some  independent  work,  and  sup 
plement  the  work  of  the  school  by  making  their  own  collections.    An  effort 
should  be  made  to  form  and  properly  label  and  catalogue  a  collection. 

A  collection  of  leaves  pressed  and  mounted  will  serve  to  identify  related  trees 
and  plants.  Seeds  of  different  fruits  may  be  preserved  in  bottles  or  jars  and 
neatly  labelled. 

During  the  year  they  should  learn  the  life  histories  of  the  most  common  in- 
sects— their  form,  color,  marking,  movements,  food,  habits,  homes.  As  the  eggs 
and  skins  are  difficult  to  preserve,  they  can  be  painted  or  drawn  and  the  cocoons 
chrysalids,  and  adult  insects  preserved.  A  few  clear  related  ideas  based  upon 
individual  observation  are  of  more  value  than  much  haphazard  information. 

Observe  formation  of  pebbles  in  a  stream  bed;  compare  with  those  in  gravel 
pits;  what  does  a  gravel  pit  suggest?  Do  you  find  pebbles  of  different  color, 
hardness,  composition?  Compare  them  with  the  rock  in  your  neighborhood. 
What  results  from  the  formation  of  pebbles? 


39 


OCl^OBER. 


PLANTS. 


Agents  for. distribution  of  seeds. 

1.  Wind. 

(a)  Winged — pine;  pappus — dandelion,  thistle,  milkweed. 

(b)  Entire  plant  scattered — as  Russian  thistle,  tumble  weeds. 

2.  Animals. 

(a)  Covering — '^stick  tights,"  sand  bur,  clot-bur,  burdocks,  pitch- 

forks, beggar's  ticks. 

(b)  Feet — -on  hoofs  of  horses,  cows;  feet  of  birds. 

(c)  Food — fruit  eaten,  digested,  seeds  discarded;  cherries,  black- 

berries, raspberries,  strawberries,  cedar  by  birds;  oats, 
maize,  and  grasses  by  herbivorous  animals ;  apples,  peaches, 
pears,  by  man. 

3.  Water.  ,.,..,-,      ,    ,  ., 

(a)  Streams — seeds  that  will  float,  nuts  in  the  husk. 

(b)  Ocean  currents — cocoanuts. 

4.  Mechanical  means. 

(a)  Bursting  pods — peas,  beans,  violet,  bloodroot,  crane's  bill. 

(b)  Rolling — nuts. 

ANIMALS.  ■    "  '"■  " 

1.  Galls. 

(a)  Willow  cones — at  end  of  willow  twigs  along  streams.     Re- 

move gray  velvety  scales,  and  find  larvae  in  the  center. 

(b)  Oak  galls — observe  position  of  leaf  on  stem,  size,  structure; 

cut  open  to  find  larvae.  Compare  galls  produced  by  a  single 
larva  with  compound  galls  containing  many  cells. 

(c)  Mossy  rose  galls.     Compare  structure  with  oak  gall. 

(d)  Conical  galls  on  witch  hazel.     Find  opening. 

(e)  Poplar  galls.     Compare  those  at  base  of  leaf  and  those  on 

end  of  a  twig. 

(f)  Golden  rod  galls.     Compare  with  oak  galls  as  to  location  on 

plant. 
What  causes  local  enlargement  of  plant? 

MINERALS.  '      ' 

Observe  mineral  deposit  in  your  neighborhood.  Is  it  limestone, 
sandstone,  granite,  marble?  What  are  the  physical  characteristics? 
From  your  study  of  pebbles,  can  you  give  a  reason  for  the  structure  of 


40 

an  J  of  the  rock?  Do  jou  find  any  layers  in  the  rock — are  they  hori- 
zontal, vertical,  or  tilted?  Have  the  rocks  changed  any  during  the 
last  six  months?     If  they  are  wearing  away,  what  agents  are  active? 

NOTE. — In  studying  distribution  of  seeds  the  results  of  observation  should  be 
tabulated.  Count  number  of  seeds  in  each  pod  or  husk  and  number  produced  by- 
each  plant. 


Plant. 

Number    of 

Seeds. 

Means  of  Distribution. 

Annuals: 

Corn 
Beans. 

200   on    rob,    2    cobs, 
10   in    pod,    20   pods. 

400.    . 
200. 

Animals. 
Bursting  pods. 

Biennials: 
Cariot. 
Turnip. 

Perennials: 
Apple. 
Grape. 

Relate  cultivation  to  production  of  seed.  Children  should  very 
early  get  the  idea  of  the  great  interdependencies  of  the  animal,  vege- 
table, and  mineral  worlds;  the  great  amount  of  plant  food  which  is 
locked  up  in  the  rocks,  the  agents  which  are  at  work  unlocking  this 
plant  food  and  making  it  available.  They  should  see  in  the  rocks 
great  store  houses  of  energy  which  must  be  liberated,  and  become  fa- 
miliar with  the  organic  and  inorganic  agents  at  work. 


NOVEMBER. 


PLANTS. 

Life  histories  of  plants. 

Work  of  a  plant — taking  food  and  reproducing  its  kind. 
Vegetative  parts  of  plant — root,  stem,  leaves;  reproductive  parts — 
flower  and  fruit. 

1.  Annuals. 

Those  which  usually  mature  seed  during  a  year,  as  corn,  beans, 
peas,  phlox,  morning-glories,  etc. 

2.  Biennials. 

Those  that  store  nourishment  in  some  part  of  plant  first  year  to  be 
utilized  in  developing  seed  second  year. 

Nourishment  in  root — turnip,  parsnip,  beet,  radish;  stekm — po- 
tato, cabbage,  celery;  leaves — cabbage,  cauliflower,  century-plant. 

3.  Perennials. 

Those  that  bear  fruit  year  after  year. 


41 


ANIMALS. 


Collect  and  compare  cocoons,  chrysalids,  and  nests  of  insects,  noting 
form,  size,  texture,  material. 

Pupa  stages  of  Cecropia,  Polyphemus,  Promethra,  Sphinx  moth, 
Luna  moth,  bag-worms,  leaf  rollers,  various  wasps  nests. 

Compare  cocoons  in  breeding  cages  with  those  found  in  the  woods 
and  fields. 

MINERALS. 

1.  Soils. 

•i     • 

(a)  Examine  sands,  gravel,  loam,  clay. 

(b)  Power  of  each  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture. 

(c)  Power  of  each  to  absorb  and  retain  heat. 

(d)  Relation  of  soil  to  plant  and  animal  life. 

(e)  Relation  of  physical  properties  to  fertile  and  desert  regions. 

NOTE. — Tabulate  number  of  seeds  produced  by  annuals,  biennials,  and  per- 
ennials. Relate  number  of  seeds  to  effort  of  plant  to  perpetuate  its  kind.  Com- 
pare seeds  of  annuals  with  those  of  perennials  as  to  color,  form,  texture, 
abundance  and  means  for  distribution.  Compare  food  valiies  of  annuals,  bi- 
ennials, and  perennials,  and  the  part  of  the  plant  utilized. 

To  gain  some  idea  of  the  various  constituents  of  plants,  weigh  a  turnip,  potato, 
some  seeds,  or  fruit;  dry  thoroughly  and  weigh  again;  burn  the  dried  vegetable 
matter  and  weigh  the  ash,  and  tabulate  results. 


Turnip. 
Potato. 
Apple. 


Weight. 


Water  Evaporated. 


Carbon  Consumed. 


Ash  or  Mineral. 


The  life  in  an  aquarium  or  breeding  cage  is  abnormal  and  the  main 
object  of  having  them  in  the  school  room  is  to  interest  the  children 
and  stimulate  observation  and  investigation.  The  specimens  secured 
by  the  effort  of  the  individual  child  are  of  the  greatest  value  to  him. 
The  teacher  should  suggest  and  direct. 

Make  collections  of  different  soils,  as  sand,  gravel,  loam,  and  clay, 
and  intermediate  stages  as  sandy  loam,  sandy  clay,  etc.  Distinguish 
physical  characteristics — color,  texture,  composition,  weight,  etc. 

Test  temperature  under  ordinary  conditions;  subject  all  to  the  same 
degree  of  heat;  test  again,  does  the  mercury  indicate  an  equal  increase 
in  temperature?  Subject  all  to  the  same  degree  of  cold;  test  again. 
Have  all  given  up  an  equal  degree  of  heat? 

Power  of  each  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture.  Tie  a  circular  piece 
of  cheese  cloth  over  the  top  of  a  tumbler  in  stich  a  way  as  to  form  a 


42 

bag  in  the  tumbler.  Arrange  four  in  the  same  way.  Put  a  gill  of 
sand,  gravel,  loam  and  clay  respectively  in  each  of  the  bags.  Pour  a 
gill  of  water  through  the  soil  in  each  glass,  being  careful  to  have  all 
pass  through  the  soil  and  not  the  cloth.  After  six  hours  compare  the 
amount  of  water  in  the  glasses.     Which  soil  retained  the  most  water? 


Soil. 

Water  in   Soil. 

Soil  in   Water. 

Temperature. 

No.  1.  Sand. 
No.  2.  Gravel. 
No.  3.  Loam. 
No.  4.  Clay. 

Effect  of  freezing  upon  soil;  upon  water  in  a  bottle.  Frozen  water 
pipes. 

Eelate  experiments  to  rainfall  and  its  effect  upon  soil;  to  formation 
of  flood  plains;  to  material  carried  in  suspension  by  streams;  forma- 
tion of  springs;  effect  of  heat  and  moisture  of  soils  to  plants  and 
animals. 

Remove  bags  containing  soils  and  expose  them  to  different  condi- 
tions of  air — a  dark,  cool  place,  sun  light  and  wind.  Which  soil 
yields  its  moisture  most  readily,  and  under  what  conditions.  Relate 
iHiis  to  exposure  of  fields  to  atmospheric  conditions. 

Germinate  seeds  under  different  conditions  of  soil,  moisture  and 
atmospheric  conditions. 


DECEMBER. 


PLANTS. 


Dormant  condition  of  plant  life.  Compare  the  buds  on  different 
trees;  can  you  distinguish  the  leaf  and  flower  buds;  the  live  and  frozen 
buds?  Which  buds  have  the  most  effective  covering?  Open  a  few 
to  note  internal  conditions.  Which  is  most  destructive  to  twigs  and 
buds,  continued  cold  or  a  variable  temperature,  very  dry  or  very  wet 
soil?    What  effect  has  the  heaving  of  the  soil  on  the  roots  of  plants? 


ANIMALS. 

Compare  life  conditions  in  an  aquarium  with  condition  in  cocoons 
and  nests  collected.  What  changes,  if  any,  are  taking  place  in  each? 
What  insects  have  you  observed  that  develop  without  metamorphosis; 
incomplete  metamorphosis;  complete  metamorphosis. 


43 

MINERALS. 

1.  Origin  of  soils. 

(a)  Mateiials — disicitegrated  rock  and  decayed  organic  matter. 

(b)  Agencies  at  work — water,  air,  frosts  and  glaciers,  low  orders 
'  of  plants,  earth  w^orms,  high  orders  of  plants,  chemical  ac- 
tion. 

What  agents  have  you  observed  that  are  active  during  the  winter? 

NOTE. — ^The  too  common  opinion  is  that  plants  should  be  studied  only  in 
spring,  summer,  and  autumn.  The  winter  condition  is  the  most  trying,  and 
should  have  its  attention.  The  individuality  of  the  trees  and  shrubs  is  more 
apparent,  the  characteristic  branching,  color  and  texture  of  bark,  arrangement 
and  protection  of  buds.    Observe  the  "winter  rosettes"  in  the  grass. 

There  is  such  a  ruthless  destruction  of  the  young  evergreen  forests 
for  Christmas  that  an  effort  should  be  made  to  have  trees  planted  io 
their  places. 

In  no  place  in  the  realm  of  nature  is  the  using  over  and  over  again 
of  the  same  material  more  apparent  than  in  the  relation  of  plant  life  to 
soil.  The  plants  absorb  the  mineral  matter  through  the  roots  and 
the  carbon  dioxide  through  the  leaves.  When  the  different  parts  of 
the  plants  have  performed  their  functions  they  fall  to  decay — the 
carbon  uniting  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  passing  into  the  atmos- 
phere as  a  gas  and  the  mineral  matter  reverting  to  the  soil;  the 
plants  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  mineral  and  animal  worlds 
and  both  finally  return  to  the  mineral  world. 

To  show  that  plants  act  chemically  upon  rocks,  germinate  a  few 
seeds  in  a  clam  shell  or  on  a  piece  of  marble;  remove  the  soil  and 
observe  tracing  on  shell  or  marble.  Fold  a  piece  of  blue  litmus 
paper  around  the  roots  of  beans  and  corn  germinated  between  blotting 
paper.  The  color  will  turn  to  pink  showing  the  acid  reaction,  prov- 
ing that  the  roots  are  giving  out  an  acid.  Dissolve  a  piece  of  egg 
shell,  coral,  clam  shell,  marble  and  limestone  in  strong  vinegar  or 
hydrochloric  acid.  Try  clay  sandstone  and  granite;  which  yields  to 
the  acid?  What  kind  of  rock  would  plants  affect  most?  Have  you 
observed  any  instances  when  the  growth  of  roots  has  split  the  rocks? 
The  roots  of  plants  make  the  soil  more  porous  and  allow  water  con- 
taining acids  in  solution  to  have  access  to  underlying  rocks,  causing 
them  to  disintegrate.  Note  the  variety  of  mosses  and  lichens  on 
granite  boulders  and  exposed  surfaces  of  rock.  What  is  their  ef- 
fect? What  relation  do  you  see  between  the  water,  air  and  frost 
and  disintegration  of  rock? 


JANIIAUY. 

PLANTS. 

PJffect  of  frost  upon  plaDts.  Select  a  number  of  twigs  from  fruit 
and  forest  trees  and  count  number  of  buds  formed,  dormant,  frozen. 

What  proportion  are  in  good  condition?  Which  trees  suffer  most, 
those  on  north  or  south  side  of  a  house;  of  a  street;  northern  slope 
of  a  hill  or  southern  slope?  Would  you  plant  fruit  trees  on  a  hillside, 
facing  a  lake,  near  the  base,  top,  or  on  the  slope?  Why?  Distin- 
guish between  air,  drainage  and  water  drainage  in  their  relation  to 
plants. 

ANIMALS. 

Economic  relation  of  insects.  Make  a  study  of  the  silk  industry. 
Compare  food,  habits,  cocoons  with  the  silk  spinners  of  your  own 
neighborhood. 

MINERALS. 

Agents  at  work  on  surface. 

1.  Air.     Destructive  action  of  moist  air;  of  changes  of  temperature: 

of  wind.     Constructive  action. 

2.  Water. 

(a)  Rain. 

Its  chemical  action,  producing  weathering.     Soil. 
Its  mechanical  action,  removing  and  renewing  soil. 

(b)  Rivers  and  streams. 

History  of  river  from  source  to  mouth.     Its  destructive  and 
constructive  effect.       Bars. 

(c)  Ice. 

Destructive  effects  of  frost,  frozen  rivers  and  lakes. 
.1.  life. 

Plants  and  animals  are  destructive  and  constructive  agents.  Soil, 
peat,  mosses,  coral  reefs  and  limestone. 

(NOTE. — A  few  fundamental  ideas  about  absorption  and  radiation  of  heat  and 
its  relation  to  currents  of  air  will  give  children  a  knowledge  of  the  best  life  con- 
ditions of  plants. 

Material  for  the  study  of  the  silk  worm  can  be  secured  from  silk  manufacturers, 
and  sometimes  from  the  Smithsonian  Institute,  at  Washington. 

The  study  of  the  soil  producers  might  be  classed  as  geographical  nature  study. 
Geography  is  no  longer  the  study  of  flat,  brightly  colored  maps  with  a  few  black 
lines  for  rivers  and  various  sized  dots  for  cities  and  towns.  The  universe  is  a 
wonderful  laboratory  in  which  great  physical  and  chemical  and  biological  forces 
are  at  work.  Children  should  be  led  to  realize  and  appreciate  the  constantly 
changing  relationship  between  earth,  air,  water  and  life. 


45 


FEBRUARY. 

PLANTS. 

Effe,ct  of  warm  days  upon  plants.  Which  trees  expand  most 
quickh^?     Which  buds  swell  first?     Watch  for  dandelion  blossoms. 

ANIMALS. 

Winter  condition  of  insects.  Examine  trees  for  egg  masses  of  tent 
caterpillar  and  forest  tentless  cgPterpillar,  bark  of  trees  for  cocoons  of 
codling  moth.  What  birds  are  seen  feeding  on  eggs  and  larvae  in  the 
trees?     Imagine  the  hiding  places  of  insects,  and  life  conditions. 

MINERALS. 

Kinds  of  rock. 

Examine  different  kinds  of  rock  in  your  neighborhood.  Is  it  sand- 
stone, limestone,  marble,  slate,  shale,  or  granite?  Compare  texture, 
hardness,  cleavage.  Which  yields  to  erosive  agents  most  rapidly? 
What  is  the  nature  of  the  soil  derived  from  the  different  kinds  of 
rock?     Do  you  find  evidences  of  life  in  any  of  the  rocks? 

NOTE. — A  few  warm  days  may  be  sufficient  to  arouse  activity  in  plants,  and 
children  should  be  on  the  alert  for  first  evidences.  A  Venessa  butterfly  which 
has  been  hibernating  in  the  bark  of  a  tree  may  be  lured  from  its  hiding  place. 
When  we  think  of  the  myriads  of  insects  that  swarm  during  the  summer,  it  is 
interesting  to  contemplate  their  abiding  places  during  the  winter.  After  vege- 
tation has  been  killed  is  a  good  time  to  study  the  rock  structure;  long  fringes 
of  icicles  on  the  breast  of  a  ledge  of  rock  speak  plainly  of  the  frost  giants  at 
work  there;  masses  of  rocks  dislodged  will  disclose  a  tracery  of  rootlets;  the  talus 
formation  at  the  base  of  the  cliffs  show  the  wreckage,  much  of  which  will  be 
carried  away  by  the  spring  freshets. 


MARCH. 
PLANTS.  ' 

Cut  twigs  from  different  trees  and  bring  into  the  school  room  for 
daily  observation.  Compare  color  and  texture  of  bark;  length  of  a 
year's  growth;  position  and  size  of  buds;  leaf  and  flower  buds.  In 
fruit  twigs  can  you  detect  fruit  spurs?  Relation  of  fruit  spurs  to 
growth  of  twigs.  Compare  covering  and  protection  of  buds.  Ob- 
serve the  way  leaves  and  blossoms  are  folded  in  buds. 

ANIMALS. 

First  appearance  of  insects;  have  they  hibernated  or  emerged  from 
cocoons  or  nests? 

Make  an  insect  calendar  for  school,  or  encourage  each  child  to  keep 
his  own  calendar. 


40 


Common  Name. 

Scientific  Name. 

i 
Date  of  Appearance,    i    Laying  Eggs 

Deposition  of  Eggs. 

Hatching  of  Eggs,  i  Larval  Period.    Pupa  Stage. 

1 

Adult. 

Stage  of  Winter  Condition. 

Remarks. 

[                                1      .                     . 

MINERALS. 

Erosive  work  of  rivers. 

1.  Raiii. 

(a)  Supplies  water  to  surface  and  underground  streams. 

(b)  Carries  acids  in  solution. 

(c)  Carves  soft  rock. 

(d)  Wears  harder  rock. 

(e)  Carries  sediment  to  streams. 

2.  Underground  Streams. 

(a)  Dissolve  mineral  matter. 

(b)  Form  caves  in  calcareous  rock. 

(c)  Furnish  river  with  mineral  mat(er  in  solution. 

3.  Rivers. 

(a)  Slowly  dissolve  rock  in  stream  bed. 

(b)  Wears  stream  bed. 

(c)  Meanders  and  broadens  its  vallev. 

(d)  Carries  and  wears  detritus  supplied  to  it. 

(e)  Assorts  and  deposits  material  in  bed. 

(f)  Forms  waterfalls,  gorges,  canons  and  broad  valleys. 

NOTE. — It  is  important  that  the  buds  should  open  in  the  house,  because  lator 
in  the  spring  so  many  things  claim  attention  that  they  are  apt  to  be  neglected.  It 
is  not  so  important  that  children  should  gain  a  great  many  facts  as  that  they 
should  have  the  right  attitude  toward  nature.  It  is  not  best  for  them  to  be 
told  a  great  many  things;  they  should  see  a  great  many  things  for  themselves. 

The  life  histories  of  insects,  appearance  and  disappearance,  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  persons  who  are  to  live  on  the  farm.  Their  habits  are  exceedingly 
interesting  in  themselves  and  a  knowledge  of  their  habits  is  of  great  value  in 
combatting  them.  Childr*^n  should  be  encouraged  to  keep  the  calendar  year 
after  year.  They  easily  acquire  scientific  names,  and  it  is  well  for  them  to  begin 
the  work  correctly,  although  not  necessary  for  an  appreciation  of  insects. 

There  are  very  few  schools  that  have  not  access  to  a  stream.  Pennsylvania 
has  such  noble  rivers,  children  should  be  encouraged  to  read  the  chapter  in  the 
history  of  the  State  that  these  streams  are  writing. 


47 


APKIL. 

PLANTS. 

Germination  of  seeds. 

1.  Seedage. 

1.  Requisites  for  germination. 

(a)  Moisture. 

(b)  Free  oxygen. 

(e)  Definite  temperature, 
(d)  Influence  of  light."^ 

2.  Experiments. 

(a)  Moisture  most  important  factor. 

(1)  Place  a  gill  of  each  of  several  kinds  of  seeds,  as  corn, 

beans,  peas,  wheat,  in  a  glass.  Pour  over  each  a  gill 
of  w^ater.  Observe  absorption  of  water  at  end  of  twen- 
ty-four hours. 

(2)  Plant  some  of  each  kind  of  seeds  in  dry,  moist  and  wet 

soils.  Observe  germination  according  to  amount  of 
moisture. 

(b)  Free  oxygen. 

(1.)  Plant  seeds  under  favorable  conditions  as  regards  mois- 
ture, in  jars.  Cover  one  with  glass  to  exclude  air,  and 
leave  the  others  exposed  to  atmosphere.     Note  effect. 

(c)  Definite  temperature. 

(1)  Expose  germinating  seeds  to  cold,  cool,  warm,  and  hot 
temperatures.     Observe  most  congenial  conditions. 

(d)  Influence  of  light. 

(1)  Submit  germinating  seed  to  light,  shade,  and  darkness. 
Observe  best  conditions  for  germinating. 

II.  Testing  Seeds. 

Soak  a  given  number  of  seeds,  as  100,  or  if  preferred,  all  that  one 
plant  produced,  as  a  pea  vine,  morning-glory  vine.  Note  successful 
and  unsuccessful  efforts  at  perpetuation  of  species. 

III.  Sowing  of  seed. 

Teach  children  to  apply  the  principles  gained  from  the  above  in 
practical  experience.     Encourage  formation  of  gardens. 

IV.  Uses  of  Plants. 

(a)  Which  are  used  for  food  of  man?     Of  horse?     Of  cow?      Of 

sheep?     Of  swine?     Of  fowls? 

(b)  Which  are  valued  for    their    seeds?     Their    fruits?      Their 

leaves?     Their  stalks?     Their  roots? 

(c)  Which  are'  planted  in  hills  or  drills  and  tilled?     Which  sown 

broadcast  or  in  close  drills  and  not  tilled? 
4 


48 

(d)  Study  effect  of  shallow  and  deep  planting  on  different  seeds. 
(ej  Observe  the  usual  time  of  planting  and  of  harvesting  different 
crops. 

ANIMALS. 

Study  moths  and  butterflies.  If  cocoons  are  kept  in  a  warm  place 
the  moths  and  butterflies  usually  come  out  some  time  in  April.  Keep 
In  a  conspicuous  place.  Note  the  opening,  size  and  shape.  Note  con- 
dition of  wings  and  bod}^  at  time  of  egress.  Note  time  from  first  ap- 
pearance until  wings  are  entirely  expanded.  Not  number,  color  and 
form  of  eggs.     Learn  different  parts  of  body.     Compare  with  larva. 

MINERALS. 

Study  capillarity  of  soils  in  relation  to  germination  of  seeds  and 
gardening.  Preparation — blotting  paper  in  a  drop  of  ink;  lump  of 
sugar  in  tea;  piece  of  crayon  in  ink;  wicks  in  candles;  lamp  wicks;  ex- 
plain. Put  glass  tubing  of  large  and  small  bore  in  colored  water. 
Note  difference  in  height  of  water  in  tubes.  Pill  a  pan  with  sand. 
Fill  four  argand  lamp  chimneys  respectively  with  sand,  gravel,  loam, 
and  clay.  Stand  them  in  the  pan  of  sand  with  large  end  down.  Pour 
water  over  the  sand  in  the  pan.  In  which  chimney  does  water  rise 
most  rapidly?  What  becomes  of  it?  ^  Compare  this  experiment  with 
experiments  with  soils  for  November.  Fill  a  chimney  with  compact 
soil  nearly  to  the  top.  Add  some  dry  loose  sand.  Do  you  notice  any 
difference  in  the  action  of  the  water?  Relate  these  experiments  to 
tillage  of  the  soil. 

When  soil  moisture,  or  the  water  table  is  too  low  to  be  useful  to 
plants,  capillarity  may  be  established  by  rolling  loose  soil  and  making 
it  more  compact,  thus  bringing  the  water  to  a  place  where  it  is  avail 
able.  To  prevent  its  evaporation,  the  soil  should  be  ploughed  or  har- 
rowed, forming  an  earth  mulch,  thus  destroying  capillarity. 

Why  should  we  try  to  conserve  the  winter  rains  and  snows?  What 
effect  would  rolling  have  upon  soil?  How  could  you  prevent  the 
moisture  from  being  lost  by  evaporation?  Walk  over  finely  ploughed 
ground.  What  makes  the  foot  print  so  apparent  in  a  short  time? 
What  is  meant  by  earth  mulch  and  what  is  its  value? 

NOTE.— There  is  such  a  difference  in  the  vitality  of  seed  and  so  much  poor 
material  put  in  the  marlvet  it  is  well  to  know  how  to  test  seed,  to  determine  the 
per  cent,  that  will  grow;  before  planting,  seed  must  have  proper  life  conditions 
in  order  to  develop  in  the  most  vigorous  manner. 


49 


MAY. 

PLANTS. 

I.  Leaves. 

1.  Form. 

(a)  Simple — ^^parallel  and  netted  veined;  lily,  geranium. 

(b)  Compound — ^^palmately    and    pinnately;    horse-chestnut    and 

walnut. 

2.  Arrangement — opposite  and  alternate. 

3.  Adaptation. 

(a)  Light — turning  edges  or  upper  surface  to  sun. 

(b)  Heat — folding  to  prevent  radiation;  development  of  hairs." 

(c)  Moisture — surface  for  absorbing,  as  thistle;  shedding,  as  mul- 

lein. 

(d)  Rain — shedding  from  plant  axis,  as  horse-chestnut,  to  be  ab 

sorbed  by  tips  of  roots;  shedding  toward  plant  axis —  violet, 
mullein,  burdock,  plantain,  turnip.  Upper  surface  of  leaves 
channelled,  leaves  folded  in  cups,  petiole  grooved,  leading 
to  tap  root. 

4.  Modification. 

(a)  Support,  tendrils,  entire  leaf,  as  grape;  part  of  leaf  as  sweet 

pea ;  petioles  of  leaves  as  clematis. 

(b)  Food — pitchers  of  pitcher  plants ;  viscous  tentacles  of  drosera 

or  sundew;  trap  of  Venus-fly. 

(c)  Reproduction. 

(1)  Evergreens — scales  of  cones  and  calkins. 

(2)  Flowers — calyx,  carolla,  stamens  and  pistils. 

(d)  Storehouse  .for  food — cabbage,  house  leek,  century-plant. 

ANIMALS. 

Social  Communities  of  Ants. 

(a)  Colony — males,  females,  or  queens  and  workers.     Males  and 

females  winged  and  workers  wingless. 

(b)  Eggs  very  small,  not  easily  seen. 

(c)  Larvae  white  and  legless. 

(d)  Pupae — some  enclosed  in  oblong,  egg-shaped  cocoons;  others 

naked.     Look  out  for  nests;  in  decayed  stumps  covered  with 
moss,  under  stones,  in  sand,  and  in  the  woods.     Contrast 
life  conditions.     Observe  black  ants  on  trees  and  shrubs. 
What  is  their  association  with  aphids  or  plant  lice. 
Construct  an  ant  nest  for  observation. 


50 


MINERALS. 


Of  what  value  are  ants  to  soil?  In  what  kind  of  soil  do  thej  work 
most? 

Make  careful  observation  of  the  work  of  earth  worms.  On  what 
kind  of  soil  do  you  find  eastings  most  abundant;  relation  to  porosity 
and  capillarity  of  soil;  to  rainfall  and  evaporation.  Estimate  the 
number  of  earthworms  in  an  acre  of  good  soil. 

NOTE. — Mark  off  a  square  yard  in  sandy  soil,  on  a  grassy  plot,  and  under  trees. 
Remove  all  the  earth  worm  castings.     Collect  castings  every  twenty-four  hours. 


A.M. 

May,.. 
May,..^ 

8.00 
8.00 

Clear  or  Cloudy.  I  Temperature. 


Cloudy. 
Clear. 


Degrees. 


Bar.    I  Sand. 


29.7 
29.7 


Gr. 

7.15 
4.7 


Gr. 
42.5 
21.7 


Trees,    i  Single  Casting. 


Gr. 
43.75 
107.2 


Gr. 
4 


By  computing  the  amount  of  soil  brought  to  surface  in  twenty-four 
hours  and  comparing  the  area  of  a  square  yard  with  an  acre,  some 
idea  can  be  gained  of  the  amount  of  work  being  done  by  these  humble 
but  effective  agents.     Bead  Charles  Darwin's  work  on  earth  worms. 


JUNE. 


PLANTS. 

1.  Flowers. 

(a)  Form — regular  and  irregular;  texture;  color;  markings  of 

flower  in  relation  to  insects.     Maturing  of  pistils  and  sta- 
mens. 

(b)  Pollen. 

(1)  Distribution — by  wind  and  insects. 

(2)  Protection. 

Against  rain;  nodding — fuschia,  columbine;  method  of 
closing  during  rain  or  cloudy  weather — poppy;  irregu- 
larity of  flowers — iris,  sweet  pea. 

Against  animals;  hairs  on  leaves,  flowers  on  throat  of 
flower — mullein,  thistle,  violet;  latex — milk  in  stem 
and  leaves,  hardens  in  air,  stalk  smooth,  epidermis 
delicate,  feet  of  insects  puncture  epidermis,  are  caught 
and  stick — milkweed;  isolation — teasel,  pond  of  water 
in  cup  formed  by  leaf;  shape  of  flower — sunflower, 
sweet  peas,  snap-dragon,  milkweed,  orchids,  yucca, 
salvia,  catnip. 


51 

ANIMALS. 

Study  bees,  wasjis,  butterflies  and  moths  in  connection  with  fer- 
tilization of  flowers. 

(a)  Bees — honey  bee,  leaf  cutter  bee,  solitary  bee,  bumble-bee. 

Community — males  or  drones,  females  or  queens  and  work- 
ers. 

(b)  Wasps — solitary  wasps,  social  wasps,  and  digger  wasps. 

MINERALS. 

"Fill  a  flower  pit  with  soft,  dark  earth  and  mold  from  the  border 
of  the  wood  and  carry  it  to  the  student  of  entomology,  and  see  if  he 
can  name  one  half  of  the  living  forms  of  this  little  kingdom  of  life; 
or  hand  it  to  the  botanist,  well  trained  in  the  lower  orders  of  plants, 
and  see  how  many  of  the  living  forms  which  these  few  handfuls 
of  dirt  contain  he  can  classify.  Present  this  minature  farm  to  the 
chemist  and  the  physicist  and  let  him  puzzle  over  it.  Call  in  the 
farmer,  and  ask  him  what  plants  will  thrive  best  in  it;  or  keep  the 
soil  warm  and  moist  for  a  time  and  have  the  gardener  say  of  the  tiny 
plants  that  open  as  if  by  magic,  which  are  good  and  which  are  bad. 
Mark  well  what  all  these  experts  have  said  and  call  in  an  orchidist 
to  tell  you  how  to  change  dead,  lifeless,  despised  earth  into  fruit; 
ask  the  physiologist  to  explain  how  sodden  earth  is  transformed  into 
nerve  and  brain." — (Taken  from  "The  Fertility  of  the  Land,"  by  Prof. 
I.  P  .Roberts,  Cornell  University.) 

NOTE. — The  perpetuation  of.  the  species  depends  upon  the  vitality  of  the  seed. 
Continued  self-fertilization  produces  weak  seed;  cross  fertilization  is  a  toning 
up  process  and  is  effected  by  the  structure  of  flowers  and  aid  of  insects.  Close 
study  will  reveal  the  secrets. 

If  possible  have  a  bee  hive  in  the  school  room  for  observation.  It  can  be 
arranged  with  glass  sides,  so  that  the  bees  will  not  have  access  to  the  room. 
Nests  of  bumble-bees  will  be  found  in  deserted  nests  of  field  mice.  Observe  rose 
leaves  for  work  of  leaf  cutter  bee.  Can  you  find  the  nests?  Collect  nests  of. 
solitary  and  social  wasps.  Inspect  dead  branches  of  sumach  and  other  pithy 
plants  for  nests  of  bees,  wasps,  and  digger  wasps. 

Read  "Bees,  Ants,  and  Wasps,"  by  Sir  John  Lubbock. 

INSECTS. 

There  is  no  problem  so  difficult  for  the  farmer  to  solve  as  the  eco- 
nomic relation  of  insects.  It  is  well,  therefore,  for  the  children  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  life  histories  of  insects  that  they  may 
have  an  intelligent  interest  in  and  a  keen  appreciation  of  those  which 
are  injurious  and  those  which  are  beneficial.  There  is  much  valu- 
able literature  on  the  subject.  The  best  results  are  secured  by  study- 
ing the  creatures  themselves  in  their  native  haunts,  and  live  speci- 


52 

mens  in  the  school  room.     An  equipment  for  collecting  is  simple  and 
can  be  made  by  an  ingenious  teacher  or  pupil. 

Collecting  Net: 

The  ring  should  be  of  iron  or  brass  wire,  ten  to  twelve  inches  in 
diameter,  fastened  to  a  wooden  handle  about  three  feet  long.  The 
bag  can  be  made  of  cheese  cloth  or  unbleached  muslin. 

The  Kiying  Bottle: 

Take  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  holding  four  or  six  ounces,  or  for  large 
moths,  a  Mason  self  sealing  fruit  jar.  Put  into  the  bottle  a  cubic 
inch  of  cyanide  of  potassium  and  cover  with  water.  Add  enough 
plaster  of  Paris  to  entirely  soak  up  the  water.  Keep  the  bottle  open 
until  entirely  dry,  and  then  keep  securely  corked. 

Directions  for  mounting  and  preserving  insects  can  be  found  in 
^'Insect  Life,"  by  John  Henry  Comstock,  a  book  which  is  full  of  sug- 
gestion for  the  work. 

The  most  valuable  study  can  be  made  by  keeping  insects  in  breed- 
ing cages.  These  can  be  simply  made  by  tying  mosquito  netting  or 
Swiss  muslin  over  the  top  of  a  box,  or  by  putting  a  lamp  chimney  or 
broken  fruit  jar  on  the  top  of  a  flower  pot  filled  with  soil.  The  soil 
should  be  moist  and  the  food  material  of  the  larvae  renewed  every 
day.  Larvae  in  different  stages  of  development  should  be  secured  to 
compare  markings  of  different  moults. 

The  movements,  manner  of  eating,  amount  of  food  consumed,  moult- 
ing, varied  markings  of  different  stages,  protective  and  attractive 
coloration,  means  of  defense — as  spines,  bristles,  secreted  liquid — 
the  sluggish  condition  before  transformation,  will  be  of  continued 
interest  day  by  day. 

Larvae  of  different  insects  should  be  collected  and  carefully  ob- 
served. A  record  should  be  kept  of  the  different  species,  as  to  time 
of  collecting,  of  going  into  pupa  stage,  and  of  changing  into  the  adult. 
"The  larvae  on  the  tomato  plant,  cabbage,  milkweed,  wild  carrot,  horse- 
chestnut,  maple,  oak,  will  supply  valuable  material.  The  larval, 
pupa  and  adult  stages  should  be  associated  so  that  one  would  recall 
the  others.  It  is  well,  but  not  necessary,  for  the  children  to  be  fa- 
miliar with  the  scientific  names;  they  should  know  the  scientific  facts 
and  their  interest  will  lead  to  deeper  study. 

There  is  so  much  that  is  interesting  in  pond  life  that  an  aquarium  is 
a  valuable  addition  to  the  school  room.  Suitable  jars  or  fish  globes 
or  battery  jars  can  be  secured  at  moderate  prices,  but  a  fruit  jar  can 
be  used.  The  plant  and  animal  life  in  the  water  will  demonstrate  the 
interdependence  of  one  upon  the  other.  If  the  aquarium  is  properly 
stocked  the  equilibrium  will  be  preserved;  the  plants  will  keep  the 
water  pure. 


The  Aquarium: 
PLANTS. 

Water  cress,  duck  weed,  frog  spittle,  slime  wort,  bladder  wort, 
water  weed. 

ANIMALS. 

Water  scavenger  beetle,  back  swimmer,  water  scorpions,  water 
bugs,  mosquito  larvae,  water  boatmen,  nymphs  of  dragon  and  damsel 
flies,  nymph  of  May  flies,  caddice  larvae. 

ANTS. 

An  ant's  nest  in  a  school  room  is  a  source  of  much  interest  and  de- 
light. An  artificial  nest  can  be  cheaply  and  easily  constructed.  Par- 
tially fill  a  tin  or  galvanized  iron  pan  12xl5x2-|-  inches  with  water. 
Above  the  water,  support  a  pane  of  glass  10x10  inches  on  small  blocks 
of  wood.  Remove  an  ant's  nest  from  the  ground  or  a  decayed  stump 
and  put  it  on  the  glass,  spreading  it  so  that  when  a  second  pane  is 
placed  on  top  the  space  between  the  panes  will  be  one-quarter  of  an 
inch.  Cover  the  glass  with  a  piece  of  cardboard  to  exclude  the  light, 
removing  only  during  observation.  Keep  the  soil  moist,  and  supply 
food — crumbs  or  sugar.  In  addition  to  the  nest,  a  park  can  be  made 
in  a  dish  containing  moss,  decayed  earth,  and  material  the  ants  have 
been  accustomed  to  in  the  woods.  Connect  the  park  and  nest.  The 
community  life  seen  through  glass  is  of  great  interest. 

PLACE  OF  INSECTS  IN  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 

INVERTEBRATES. 

1.  Branch. 

(a)  Arthropeda. 

2.  Class. 

(a)  Crustaceans — crayfish,  sow  bugs. 

(b)  Arachnida— spiders,  scorpions,  grand-daddy-long-legs,  mites, 

and  ticks. 

(c)  Myriopoda — centipeds,  millipeds. 

(d)  Hexapoda — insects. 

PARTS  OF  AN  INSECT. 

1.  Head. 

(a)  Antennae — "feelers." 

(b)  Compound  eyes. 

(c)  Simple  eyes  or  ocelli. 

(d)  Mouth  parts. 


54 

(1)  Labium — upper  lip. 

(2)  Mandibles — jaws. 

(3)  Maxillae,  and  maxillary  palpi. 

(4)  Labium  and  labial  palpi. 

2.  Thorax. 

(a)  Prothorax. 

(1)  First  pair  of  legs. 

(b)  Mesothorax. 

(1)  Second  pair  of  legs. 
(1)  First  pair  of  wings. 

(c)  Meta thorax. 

(1)  Third  pair  of  legs. 

(2)  Second  pair  of  wings. 
Wing — veins  and  cells. 

Legs — coxa,  trochanter,  femur,  tibia,  tarsus,  and  claws. 

3.  Abdomen. 

(a)  Ears  (in  locust). 

(b)  Spiracles — breathing  holes. 

(c)  Ovipositors — for  depositing  eggs. 

METAMORPHOSIS  OF  INSECTS. 

1.  Delevolpment  with  Metamorphosis. 

(a)  Stages — egg,  immature  insect,  adult. 

(b)  Examples — Thysanura. 

2.  Incomplete  Metamorphosis. 

(a)  Stages — egg,  nymph  (several  stages),  adult  and  imago. 

(b)  Examples — locust,  cricket,  dragon  fly,  damsel  fly,  May  fly. 

3.  Complete  Metamorphosis. 

(a)  Stages — egg,  larva,  pupa,  imago. 

(b)  Examples — moths,  butterflies,  bees,  ants,  beetles,  flies. 

ECONOMIC  RELATIONS  OF  INSECTS. 

1.  Effects. 

$400,000,000.00  of  the  agricultural  products  of  the  United  States  are 
annually  destroyed  by  insects.  The  Codling-moth  exacts  a  yearly 
tax  of  13,000,000.00  in  one  State. 

Many  insects  are  injurious  and  many  are  very  beneficial. 

2.  Warfare  against  Insects. 

(a)  Is  the  insect  injurious? 

(b)  How  does  the  insect  feed? 

(1)  Mouth  parts  formed  for  sucking. 

(2)  Mouth  parts  formed  for  biting. 

(c)  How  can  it  best  be  attacked  and  when? 

(d)  Are  mechanical  or  chemical  means  most  effective? 


55 

3.  Some  Mechanical  Methods. 

(a)  Hand-picking — tomato  worm,  \wav  tree  borer. 

(b)  Collecting  and  destroying  eggs — tent  caterpillar  and  forest 

tentless  caterpillar. 

4.  Insecticides. 

(a)  Biting  insects — Paris  green  or  Bordeaux  mixture  for  potato 

beetle  and  codling  moth. 

(b)  Sucking  insects — kerosene  emulsion. 

5.  Spraying. 

(a)  Apparatus  for  spraying. 

(b)  How  to  spray. 

(c)  When  to  spray. 

The  time  will  depend  upon  the  vulnerable  stage  or  period  of  the 
pest. 

Children  should  learn  the  principle  and  working  of  the  lifting  and 
force  pump. 

INJURIOUS  INSECTS. 

1.  Apple  Pests — nearly  -400  insect  pests. 

(a)  Koots — wooly  aphis. 

(b)  Trunk — round-headed  and  flat-headed  borer. 

(c)  Leaves. 

(1)  Spring  and  Fall  canker  worm.     Observe  trunk  at  nighi. 

(2)  Apple  tent  caterpillar.    Collect  eggs  and  destroy. 

(3)  Forest  tentless  caterpillar.     Jar  off  and  kill. 

(4)  White-marked  tassock  moth. 

(5)  Red-humped  apple  worm. 

(d)  Fruit.  ' 

(1)  Codling  moth. 

Eggs  laid  on  surface  of  apple  or  adjacent  leaves.  Caterpillars 
emerge  in  about  a  week,  enter  fruit  and  calyx. 

Larval  stage  inside  apple;  emerge  through  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the 
apple ;  crawl  into  crevice  of  bark  or  elsewhere. 

Piipa  stage,  a  week  or  two.  Moths  emerge  for  a  second  brood. 
Change  to  pupa  may  not  take  place  until  spring. 

Spray  with  Bordeaux  mixture. 

(a)  Before  the  blossom  opens. 

(b)  After  the  blossoms  fall. 

(c)  A  week  later. 

2.  Plum  Pests. 

(a)  Fruit. 
Plum  curculio.     Observe  the  insect  lay  the  egg  in  fruit.     Jar  tree 
and  destroy  affected  fruit. 


56 

3.  Peach  Pests. 

(a)  Trunk  and  roots. 
Peach  tree  borer.     Dig  out  borers  before  July  15,  and  destroy. 

4.  Cherry  Pests. 

(a)  Fruit. 
Cherry  fruit  fly.     Lays  eggs  through  skin  of  reddening    cherry; 
maggot  feeds  on  pulp  near  it.     Maggot  leaves  fruit;  goes  to  ground, 
transforms  to  parent  fly  in  spring. 

5.  Grape  Pests. 

(a.)  Leaves  and  buds. 
Grape  vine  flea  beetle.     Small  blue  beetle  attacking  swelling  buds. 
Destroys  crop. 

6.  Currant.  Pests. 

(a)  Stems. 

Two  borers,  adult  of  one  a  beetle,  of  the  other  a  moth.     Cut  out  and 
destroy  infested  stalk. 

(b)  Leaves. 

Imported  currant   worm.     Green   worm,  larva  of  saw-fly.     Eggs 
layed  along  veins  in  under  side  of  leaves. 

7.  Raspberry  and  Blackberry  Pests. 

(a)  Canes. 

Raspberry  cane  borer.     Cut  and  burn  wilted  fip  of  cane. 

(b)  Leaves. 

Raspberry  saw-fly.     Eggs  on  leaves  in  spring;  larva — thickly  spined 
green  worm.     Pupa  stage  in  ground. 

8.  Potato  Pests. 

(a)  Leaves. 
Colorado  potato  beetle.     Hibernates  in  ground.     Five  hundred  to 
1,000  eggs.     Grows  .full  grown  in  two  or  three  weeks.     Pupate  in 
ground.     Grubs  and  bettles  feed  upon  leaves. 

y.  Totmato  Pests. 
(a)  Leaves. 

Tomato  larva.     Larva  ^reen  or  brown    in    color.     Pupa  stage  in 
ground.     The  adult,  the  Sphinx  moth. 

Often  attacked  by  Ichneumon  fly,  which  deposits  eggs  under  skin. 
Larvae  feed  upon  caterpillar.     On  emerging  they  spin  white  cocoons. 

10.  Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  Pests. 
(a)  Leaves. 
Eggs  on  leaves.     Caterpillar  full  grown  in  two  weeks.     Butterflies 
emerge  from  chrysalis  in  ten  days.     One  of  the  best  species  to  observe 
the  life  history,  it  is  completed  in  so  short  a  time. 


57 


SOME  OP  NATURE'S  INSECTICIDES. 

1.  Wind. — Removes  from  trees. 

2.  Temperature. — Insects  can  endure  extremes  but  not  variation. 

3.  Rain. — Destroys  plant  lice. 

4.  Fires. — Destroy  insects  in  all  stages,  especially  those  infesting 
decayed  wood. 

5.  Birds. — Prey  on  the  egg,  larval,  pupa,  and  adult  stages  of  in- 
sects. 

6.  Predaceous  Insects. — Prey  on  other  species,  in  air,  as  dragon-fly; 
in  water  as  scavenger  beetle. 

7.  Inchneumon  Flies. — Deposit  eggs  in  larva  of  insects;  in  mines 
of  the  engraver  beetle.  Remove  bark  and  compare  engravings  of  dif- 
ferent species. 

8.  Mantis. — Habits  of  mantis  or  praying  insect. 

9.  Spiders. — Traps  for  catching  insects — funnel  web,  orb  web. 

10.  Frogs  and  Toads. — Structure  of  mouth  for  catching  insects. 

11.  Lady-bug. — Destroys  San  Jose  Scale  and  aphis,  very  beneficial 
and  should  be  protected. 


58 


OUTLINE  FOR  TREE  STUDY. 


ALL  GRADES. 


Cause  each  pupil  or  class  to  select  an  individual  tree  for  systematic 
and  consecutive  study  throughout  the  year.  If  a  maple  is  chosen, 
careful  observations  should  be  made  and  recorded  in  writing,  paint- 
ing, and  drawing;  different  species  as  to  shape,  symmetrical  develop- 
ment, bark,  wood,  leaves,  flowers,  fruit,  etc.  Skillful  effort  on  part  of 
teacher  may  foster  love  for  trees  that  shall  be  life-long. 

I.  Environment. 

(a)  Open  fields — symmetrical  development. 

(b)  In  a  forest — tall,  slender,  etc. 

(c)  Near  another  tree  or  house — development  irregular. 
II.  Shape. 

(a)  Excurrent — development  of  terminal  buds. 

(b)  Deliquescent — development  of  lateral  buds. 

III.  Symmetry. 

IV.  Parts  of  Tree. 

(a)  Roots. 

(1)  Tap-root — long  root  deep  in  ground,  as  nut  trees,  hick- 

ories. 

(2)  Multiple  roots — many  large  roots  extending  outward 

from  trunk,  as  in  maple,  elm,  horse-chestnut,  poplar. 

(3)  Primary  roots — growing  from  root-end  of  embryo,  as 

in  apple,  peach,  cherry. 

(4)  'Secondary  roots — growing  from  slips  or  stems,  as  in 

willow. 

(b)  Stems  and  Branches. 

(1)  Tree — plant  of  woody  structure  branching  some  dis- 

tance above  ground. 

(2)  Shrub — plant  of  woody  structure  branching  directly 

above  ground. 

(3)  Exogenous  stems — separable  bark,  wood  in  annual 

layers,  as  maple,  oak,  etc. 

(4)  Endogenous  stems — no  separable  bark.     Woody  sub- 

stance in  threads  within  pithy    material;  as    pal- 
metto, cornstalk,  etc. 


59 

,^cj  Bark. 

(1)  Birch — bark  peels  in  thin  horizontal  layers. 

(2)  Ash — bark  opens  in  many  irregular  netted  cracks  near 

each  other. 

(3)  Chestnut — bark  opens  in  longitudinal    cracks    quite 

distant  from  each  other. 

(d)  Wood. 

(1)  Heart-wood — dead,  dark,  central  wood. 

(2)  Sap-wood — carries  sap  in  growing  season. 

(3)  Medullary  rays — silver  grain. 

(4)  Annual  layers — minute  tubes  or  cells.     Large  in  early 

growing  season;  small  in  late  growing  season. 

(5)  Age  of  tree  generally  told  by  annual  layers. 

(e)  Branches. 

(1)  Opposite  leaves,  generally  opposite  branches. 

(2)  Alternate  leaves,  always  alternate  branches. 

(3)  Erect,  horizontal  and  drooping  Lombardy  poplar,  pine 

and  weeping  willow. 

(f)  Buds. 

I.  As  to  Position. 

(1)  Terminal — at  end  of  twig. 

(2)  Lateral — along  sides  of  twig. 

(a)  Axillary,  in  the  leaf  axil. 

(b)  Accessory,  buds  clustered  around  axillary  buds. 

(c)  Adventitious,  buds  produced  irregularly. 
Nodes — points  on  stem  at  which  buds  are  pro- 
duced. 

Internodes — spaces  between  nodes. 
II.  As  to  Activity. 

(1)  Active — those  that  develop.  ^ 

(2)  Dormant — those  that  form  but  do  not  develop. 

III.  As  to  Covering. 

(1)  Scaly — covered  with  dry,  tough,  bark-like  layers. 

(2)  Naked — without  scaly  covering. 

(.3)  Hidden — those  buried  under  or  in  bark. 

IV.  As  to  Arrangement. 

(1)  Opposite — two  at  same  node  and  opposite. 

(2)  Whorled — three  or  more  arranged  around  the  same 

node. 

(3)  Alternate — in  ranks  around  stem  not  being  opposite 

or  whorled.  ' 

(g)  Leaves — lungs  of  plants. 

(1)  Arrangement — alternate  —  i)oplar;  opposite — maple; 
clustered — pines;  scattered — spruce. 


I,.       .  . 

i  (2)  Parts — blade — thin  expanded    portion;    petiole — leaf 

stalk;  stipules— pair  of    small    blades  at  base    of 
petiole. 

(3)  Veining — parallel,  netted;  midrib — central  line;  ribs 

— second  in  size;    veins — third   in  size;    veinlets — 
minute  lines. 

(4)  Kinds  of  leaves — simple — one  blade,  compound — more 

than  one  blade,  palmately  compound — blades  from 
one  point,  pinnately  compound — blades    arranged 
alongside. 
V.  Forms  of  leaves — broadcast  in  the  middle — orbicular,  oval,  el- 
liptical, oblong,  linear,  needle-shaped;  broadest  near  base — 
deltoid,  ovate,  cordate  or  heart-shaped,  lanceolate,  awl-shaped, 
scale-shaped;  broadest  near  apex — obovate,  obcordate,  oblan- 
ceolate,  cuneate  or  wedge-shaped. 

(1)  Bases  of  leaves — cordate  or  heart-shaped,  auriculate. 

Abrupt,  tapering,  peltate  or  shield-shaped,  reniform 
or  kidney-shaped,  halberd-shaped,  oblique. 

(2)  Apexes  of  leaves — truncate,  retuse,  emarginate,  ob- 

cordate, obtuse,  aeute,  acuminate,  bristle-pointed, 
spiny-pointed,  mucronate. 

(3)  Margins^ — entire,  repand,  sinuate,    dentate,    serrate, 

crenate,  lobed,  notched,  cleft,  parted,  divided,  pin- 
natified. 
VI.  Nature  of  Leaves. 

(1)  Surface — pubescent,  glabrous,  canescent,  scabrous. 

(2)  Q^'exture — succulent,   punctate,    membranous,    thick, 

thin. 


OUTLINE  FOR  TREE  DESCRIPTION. 

Tree  as  a  whole:  size,  general  form,  trunk,  branching,  twigs,  char- 
acter of  bark,  color  of  bark  on  trunk,  branches,  and  fine  spray. 

Leaves:  parts,  arrangement,  kinds,  size,  thickness,  form,  edges, 
veining,  color,  surface,  duration. 

Buds:   position,  size,  form,  covering,  number,  color. 

Sap  and  juice. 

Flowers:  size,  shape,  color,  parts,  odor,  position,  time  of  blooming, 
duration. 

Fruit:  size,  kind,  form,  color  when  young  and  when  ripe,  time  of 
ripening,  substance,  seeds,  duration,  usefulness. 

Wood  (often  necessarily  omitted):  hardness,  weight,  color,  grain, 
markings,  durability. 

Remarks:  the  peculiarifies  not  brought  out  by  the  above  on! line. 


Gl 


FOUR  FORMS  OF  TREE  DESCRIPTION. 

I.  A  bare  skeleton  written  by  aid  of  topical  outline  from  observa- 
tion- of  single  tree  and  its  parts. 
II.  A  connected  description  conveying  as  many  facts  given  in  out- 
line as  can  well  be  brought  into  good  English  sentences.     This 
a  description  of  a  single  tree. 

III.  A  connected  readable  description  of  a  certain  kind  of  tree,  made 

up  from  observation  of  many  trees  of  same  species  to  be  found 
in  neighborhood. 

IV.  Fourth  description,  including  information  to  be  obtained  from 

outside  sources  in  regard  to  origin,  geographical  distribution, 
hardness,  character  of  wood,  habits,  durability,  etc. 

NOTE. — The  outline  for  study  of  a  tree  is  for  entire  year.  Tree  should  be 
selected  at  opening  of  school  year.  Monthly  drawings  and  written  descriptions 
by  each  child  regarding  its  condition  at  that  time.  Papers  should  be  of  uniform 
size,  properly  dated,  so  that  by  June  the  record  for  a  year  will  be  complete.  Spe- 
cimens of  autumn  leaves,  showing  depredations  of  insects,  pressed  and  mounted. 
Collection  of  seed  made.  Specimens  of  twigs  from  north,  east,  south  and  west 
sides  mounted  and  compared.  Carefully  prepared  transverse  and  longitudinal 
sections  of  wood.  Specimens  of  newly  developed  leaves  pressed  and  mounted, 
showing  exposition  of  leaf  area  to  sun.  Specimens  of  flowers  mounted  and  pre- 
served. Written  description  should  relate  growth  of  tree  to  atmospheric  con- 
ditions, soil,  etc.,  and  should  contain  everything  that  influences  its  growth. 

DRAWINGS.* 

September — Leaves  showing  depredation  of  insects,  insects'  nests, 
cocoons,  birds'  nests  and  birds  found  in  tree. 

October — Groups  of  fruit — transverse  and  longitudinal  sections, 
seed. 

November — Twig  showing  buds  and  scars. 

December — Tree  as  a  whole  showing  shape  of  top,  cone,  sphere, 
hemisphere,  oval,  ellipse. 

January — Transverse  section  of  wood. 

February — Longitudinal  section  of  wood. 

March — Drawing  of  twig. 

April — Transverse  and  longitudinal  section  of  bud. 

May  and  June — Weekly  drawings  showing  development,  enlarged 
bud,  arrangement  of  scales,  opening  buds,  flower  and  parts  of  flower. 

TREES   FOn  DIFFERENT  GRADES. 

h'iisi.     ll<ns(-cliestnut,  niaph*  .hhI  sjumicc. 
Second.     Dak,  hickory  and  [>ine. 


62 

Third.     Fruit  trees — apple,  cherry,  plum ;  fir. 

Fourth.     Willow,  sycamore,  poplar,  hemlock. 

Fifth.  Comparison  of  trees  commercially:  as  to  food,  building 
material,  fuel,  machinery,  railroads,  ships,  telegraph  and  telephone 
l)oles,  arts  and  sciences. 

Sixth.  Distribution  of  trees  as  to  latitude  and  altitude.  Compari- 
son of  foreign  and  domestic  woods. 

Seventh.  Effect  of  ruthless  destruction  of  trees.  Famous  trees  in 
history. 

Eighth.     Literature  of  trees. 

The  horse-chestnut  is  chosen  for  the  First  grade  because  the  parts 
are  large  and  conspicuous,  and  can  be  easily  discovered  by  the  un- 
skilled hand  and  untrained  eyes  of  little  children;  the  maple  for 
its  beauty,  abundance,  graceful  form  of  fruit,  and  brilliant  coloring 
of  its  leaves  in  the  fall;  the  spruce,  that  comparisons  may  be  made 
between  evergreen  and  deciduous  trees,  and  because  of  its  relation  to 
Christmas. 

The  oak,  hickory  and  pine  may  be  studied  as  supplying  food  for 
the  squirrel.  The  leaves  and  acorns  of  as  many  different  oaks,  as 
possible,  should  be  collected  and  form,  size,  color,  texture  of  leaves, 
cups  and  acorns  compared.  One  class  found  thirteen  varieties  in 
one  locality. 

Make  a  collection  of  pine  cones  and  twigs  and  distinguish  between 
white,  yellow,  red,  Scotch,  and  pitch  pine,  by  length,  form,  arrange- 
ment of  needles  and  nature  of  cones.  Make  collections  of  nuts  that 
have  been  used  as  food  and  notice  where  they  have  been  opened,  and 
compare  hardness  of  shells. 

The  fruit  trees  are  studied  in  the  third  grade  in  connection  with 
birds  and  insects  and  birds  showing  interdependence  of  animal  and 
plant-life,  in  the  distribution  of  pollen  and  seeds  in  return  for  honey 
and  fruit.  Also  in  connection  with  the  study  of  amber  and  gums  in 
which  insects  have  been  imprisoned  showing  difference  between  ex- 
tinct and  extant  species. 

The  willow  and  sycamore  are  trees  which  grow  best  near  streams, 
and  should  be  taken  in  connection  with  swamp  vegetation.  The 
poplar  and  willow  show  marked  difference  between  drooping  and 
erect  branching.  Compare  protection  of  buds  and  development  of 
catkins. 

In  the  early  years  of  a  child's  school  life,  most  of  the  work  should  be 
devoted  to  instilling  into  his  soul  an  interest  and  love  for  trees,  but 
when  he  reaches  the  fifth  grade  he  should  begin  to  appreciate  their 
utility;  the  factor  they  have  been  in  civilization.  Compare  the  char- 
acteristics of  different  woods  and  their  value  for  certain  purposes. 
Why  should  the  wood  of  one  tree  be  used  for  the  mast  and  another 
for  the  keel  of  a  vessel  that  will  weather  the  fiercest  gale,  and  of  an- 


UNIVERSITY 
63  v..     o. 

other  the  body  of  a  violin  whose  vibrations  shall  thrill  the  hearts  of 
men. 

Relate  great  forest  belts  to  regions  of  constant  rainfall.  Compare 
growth  of  same  trees  under  different  conditions  of  climate. 

Specimens  of  ebony,  mahogany,  bamboo,  etc.,  should  be  compared 
with  pine,  oak,  etc.     Relate  to  house  furnishing  and  furniture. 

A  love  for  trees  should  be  engendered  and  a  sentiment  against  the 
great  destruction  of  forests  aroused.  When  possible  have  trees 
planted,  and  others  cared  for  by  destroying  harmful  insect  life  infest- 
ing trees. 

Some  experiments  can  be  made  showing  something  of  the  physi- 
ology of  plants.  Some  very  valuable  suggestions  may  be  found  in 
"Botany,"  for  June,  in  "Nature  Study,"  by  W.  S.  Jackman. 

Outline  from  "Trees  of  North  America,"  by  Apgar.  Read  "Under 
the  Trees,"  by  Hamilton  R.  Mabie. 

As  forest  products  rank  next  to  agricultural  products,  children 
should  be  led  to  have  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  care  and  develop- 
ment of  forests  and  their  relation  to  soil  and  climate. 

1.  Formation  of  Forests. 

1.  Choice  of  Species. 

2.  Reclamation  of  Soil. 

(a)  Irrigation. 

(b)  Drainage. 

(c)  Fixation  of  soil. 

(1)  Mountain  sides. 

(2)  Treatment  of  gullies. 

(3)  Eroded  land. 

(d)  Fixation  of  shifting  sand. 

(e)  Treatment  of  indurated  and  heavy  soils. 

3.  Formation  of  Forests  by 

(a)  Direct  sowing. 

(b)  Cuttings. 

(c)  Planting. 

4.  Formation  of  Nurseries. 

(a)  Select  good  seed. 

(b)  Mother  tree  of  good  condition  and  age. 

(c)  Germinating  beds  in  good  condition. 

(d)  Young  seedlings,  just  enough  light. 

(e)  Shade-enduring  and  light-demanding  seedlings. 

5.  Natural  Regeneration  of  -Forests. 

(a)  Mother  trees. 

(b)  Shelter  woods. 

(c)  Adjoining  woods. 

(d)  Coppice. 
5 


64 

II.  Influence  of  Forests  upon  Water  Flow. 

1.  Kainfall. 

(a)  Deposition  on  foliage,  trunks,  underbrush,  litter  and  forest 

floor. 

(b)  Eeduction  of  progress  of  erosion,  washing  of  soil. 

(c)  Prevention  of  formation  of  shifting  sand  and  sand  dunes. 

2.  Drainage. 

(a)  Surface  drainage  changed  to  subsoil  drainage. 

(b)  Porous  soil  absorbs  rainfall. 

(c)  Time  element  in  "run  off"  prolonged. 

(d)  Force  and  rapidity  of  surface  waters  reduced. 

3.  Snow. 

(a)  Distribution  of  snow  masses  more  even. 

(b)  Melting  of  snow  under  forest  cover  prolonged. 

(c)  Spring  floods  reduced. 

4.  Floods. 

(a)  Large  floods  dependent  upon  cosmic  causes  and  uncontrol- 

lable terrestrial  causes. 

(b)  Large  floods  modified  by 

(1)  Topography  of  land. 

(2)  Character  of  the  soil. 

(3)  River  systems. 

(4)  Forest  cover. 

5.  Modifying  Influence  of  Forests. 

(a)  Prolongs  time  of  "run  off." 

(b)  Reduces  water  stages. 

(c)  Reduces  extremes  of  drought  and  flood. 

(d)  Reduces  extremes  in  low  and  high  temperature. 

6.  Condition  of  Forest  Floor. 

(a)  More  important  in  influence  upon  soil  conditions  and  water 

flow  than  trees. 

(b)  Forest  fires  destroy  Utter. 

7.  Regulafion  of  Water  Supply. 

(a)  Relation  of  water  supply  to  agriculture. 

(b)  Relation  of  forests  to  conservation  of  water. 

8.  Sanitary  Influences. 

(a)  Reduction  in  extremes  of  temperature. 

(b)  Reduction  of  severity  of  winds. 

(c)  Comparative  freedom  from  microbes. 

(d)  Injurious  lack  of  rapid  evaporation  on  poorly  drained  soil. 

Southern  swamps. 
0.  Relation  of  Agriculture  to  Forestry. 


65 

III.  Enemies  of  Forests. 

1.  Man. 

(a)  Destructive  lumbering. 

(b)  Excessive  taxation  on  forest  land. 

(c)  Devastated  lands  revert  to  State. 

2.  Animals. 

(a)  Grazing. 

(1)  Destruction  of  young  trees. 

(2)  Fires — ^burning  soil  cover  improves  grass. 
(2)  Fires  extend  area  of  pasturage. 

(b)  Trampling. 

(1)  Compacting  of  soil. 

(2)  Destruction  of  young  trees. 

(3)  Destruction  of  forest  floor. 

(4)  Interference  with  water  flow. 

(5)  Formation  of  flood. 

(6)  Denudation  of  mountain  sides. 

3.  Insects. 

4.  Fungi. 

5.  Wind. 

6.  Snow.  ' 

7.  Fire. 

(a)  Causes. 

(1)  Negligence — hunters. 

(2)  Lightning. 

(3)  Malice. 

(4)  Berry  pickers  and  herders. 

(b)  Effects. 

(1)  Destruction  of  certain  species;  weak  perish  first. 

(2)  Destruction  of  species  after  species. 

(3)  Change  in  physical  condition  of  surface  of  earth. 

(4)  Plains  and  prairies  largely  due  to  fire. 

(5)  Destruction  of  organisms  at  work  in  soil — earth  worms, 

bacteria,  moulds,  insects. 

(6)  Equilibrium  in  nature  destroyed. 

IV.  Some  Important  Forest  Trees. 

White  pine,  Red  juniper, 

Sugar  pine.  Arbor  vitae, 

Cuban  pine,  Big-tree, 

Balsam  fir.  Swamp  white  oak. 

Noble  fir.  Beech, 

Hemlock,  Black  walnut. 

Tamarack,  Pecan, 


Tulip  tree, 
Sugar  maple, 
White  elm, 
Basswood, 
Cottonwood, 
Long  leaf  pine. 
Short  leaf  pine, 
Black^pruee, 
White  spruce, 
Douglas  spruce, 
Ball  cypress. 
Western  larch, 


66 


White  cedar, 

Eedwood, 

White  oak. 

Bur  oak, 

Chestnut, 

Shag  bark  hickory, 

Locust, 

White  ash. 

Red  maple. 

River  birch. 

Sycamore, 

White  willow. 


67 


OUTLINE  FOR  DETERMINATION  OF  MINERALS. 


I 


Scale  of  Hardness. 

1.  Talc  and  Gypsum.  Very  soft.  Can  be  scratched  with  finger 
ail,  or  very  easily  with  a  knife. 

2.  Calcite  and  Fluorite.     Soft.     Cannot  be  scratched  with  finger 
nail,  but  easily  scratched  with  knife. 

3.  Apatite   and    Orthoclase.     Hard,     is'^ot    easily    scratched    with 
knife;  scratches  glass. 

4.  Quartz  and  Topaz.  Very  hard.  Cannot  be  scratched  with  knife; 
icratches  glass.     Topaz  scratches  quartz. 

5.  Corundum   and   Diamond.     Corundum    scratched   by    diamond 
and  itself;  diamond  not  scratched  by  any  other  mineral. 

i.  Specific  Gravity. 
1.  Weight  in  air. 
2.  Weight  in  water. 
3.  Specific  Gravity — weight  in  air;  loss  of  weight  in  water. 
I.  Form. 
1.  External.     Surface — grape  like.    Porous — mineral  incrustations 
formed  from  solutions.     Stalactitic — hanging  from  under  surface  of 
rock,  cone-shaped.     Stalagmitic — formed  on  floors  of  caverns  from 
dripping  water.     Stratified — deposited  in  layers. 

2.  Internal.     Granular,  coarse  or  fine — small  crystals.     Compact — 
crystals  invisible  to  unaided  eye. 
V.  Tenacity. 

1.  Brittle — breaks  easily. 

2.  Malleable — flattens  into  thin  sheets  under  hammer. 

3.  Sectile — may  be  cut  into  thin  slices. 

4.  Flexible — retains  its  form  when  bent. 

5.  Elastic — comes  back  in  its  original  form  when  bent. 
Lustre. 

1.  Metallic,  as  in  Metals. 

2.  Non-metallic — vitreous,  as  in  glass.  Pearly,  as  in  pearl.  Resin- 
us,  as  in  sulphur,  sphalerite,  resins.  Pitchy,  as  in  cannel  coal, 
ilky  or  satiny,  as  in  satin  spar.  Greasy,  or  waxy,  as  in  serpentine, 
ull,  as  in  chalk. 

I.  Streak. — Color  obtained  by  rubbing  mineral  over  surface  of  a 
piece  of  ground  glass  or  file. 


68 

VII.  Diaphaneity. 

1.  Transparent,  semi-transparent. 

2.  Translucent,  sub-translucent. 

3.  Opaque. 

VIII.  Acid  Tests.  Use  H.  CI.  (hydrochloric  acid)  or  dilute  ffSO^ 
(sulphuric  acid),  or  both.     Use  a  little  of  the  mineral  in  a  test  tube. 

1.  Insoluble. 

2.  Soluble.     With  effervescence,  with  or  without  heat.     Without 
effervescence,  with  or  without  heat. 

IX.  Flame  Tests.  Use  a  fine  splinter  of  the  mineral,  or  thin  edge 
in  the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp  or  bunsen  burner.  Note  color  im- 
parted to  flame. 

1.  Fusible — melts. 

2.  Infusible — does  not  melt. 

3.  Decrepitates.     Breaks  into  small  pieces  with  crackling  sound. 

4.  Intumesces.     Swells  up  without  fusion. 

Taken  from  "Nature  Study,"  by  W.  S.  Jackman. 


69 


GERMINATION   OF  SEEDS. 


A  SEED. 


FI.  Function  of  Life  to  Reproduce  Itself. 
II.  Environment  and  Activity  of  a  Plant  Directed  Toward  Produ- 
cing Seed. 


I.  Outer  parts:    hilum  or  scar-point  of  attachment;  micropyle — 
opening  near  Lilum.    Seed-coats;  outer — testa;  inner — tegmen. 
II.  Inner  parts:    cotyledons — thickened  leaves   in  which  nourish- 
ment is  stored,     (a)  Dicotyledons — two.     (b)  Monocotyledons 
— one. 

Plumule — small  terminal  bud;    caulicle  or    radicle — small 

stem  within  seed-coats. 
Embryo — ^^plantlet. 


Seed, 

I.  Dicotyledon. 

II.  Monocotyledon 

Venation, 

Netted. 

Parallel. 

Wood, 

Ringed. 

Fibrous. 

Flower, 

Fives. 

Threes. 

I.  II. 

Bean.  Corn. 

Pea.  Wheat. 

III.  Plant  Seeds  under  Different  Conditions. 

(1)  Light,  shade,  dark. 

(2)  Sand,  clay,  gravel,  loam. 

(3)  Dry,  moist,  damp. 

(4)  Hot,  warm,  cold. 

IV.  Development  of  Plantlet. 

(1)  Bursting  of  seed-coats. 

(2)  Plumule  into  stem. 

(3)  Radicle  into  root. 

(4)  Cotyledons  that  are  leaf-like. 

(5)  Cotyledons  not  leaf-like. 

(6)  Those  that  grow  above  ground. 

(7)  Those  that  do  not  grow  above  ground. 

NOTE. — Record  accurately  the  date  of  planting,  first  appearance  of  plant, 
first  leaves,  second  leaves,  etc.  Press  and  mount  plants  showing  development 
during  two  or  three  days. 


SIXTH  GRADE. 


PLANTS. 


Earth,  air,  and  water  play  such  an  important  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  plants  it  is  well  for  the  children  to  have  some  simple  experi- 
ments which  will  show  how  some  of  the  work  is  done. 

OSMOSIS. 

1.  Experiments. , 

(a)  Place  some  thin  slices  of  red  beet,  carrot  and  turnip  in  a  vessel 

of  fresh  water,  in  a  5  per  cent,  salt  solution,  and  in  strong 
sugar  solution.  Examine  after  a  few  hours.  Remove  slices 
from  salt  solution  and  sugar  solution,  wash,  and  place  in 
fresh  water.     Compare  results. 

(b)  Treat  bean  and  corn  seedlings  in  the  same  way;  leaves  of 

geranium  and  coleus,  allowing  petioles  to  preject  above 
liquid. 

(c)  Compare  stew^ed  prunes  and  raisins  and  dried  fruit  with  un- 

cooked. 

(d)  Soak  cucumbers  in  strong  salt  water;  in  fresh  water. 

(e)  Tie  tightly  a  piece  of  bladder  membrane  over  the  large  end 

of  an  argand  lamp  chimney.  Place  a  strong  solution  of 
sugar — two  parts  sugar  and  one  part  water — in  the  chim- 
ney, allowing  it  to  extend  partway  up  the  chimney.  Im 
merse  in  water  in  a  wide-mouthed  vessel,  having  both  solu- 
tions on  the  same  level.  Support  chimney  by  means  of 
corks.  Note  change  in  level  of  liquids.  What  is  the  direc- 
tion of  greatest  flow? 

(f)  Use  same  apparatus.     Change  liquids.     Color  fresh  water  in 

chimney.     What  is  the  direction  of  greatest  flow? 

2.  Absorption  of  Liquid  Nutriment. 

Roots  are  composed  of  cells.  Cell  sap  more  dense  than  soil  mois- 
ture; flow  of  soil  moisture  through  protoplasmic  lining  of  cell  wall; 
cell  sap  diluted;  cell  sap  of  next  cell  dense,  diluted  sap  flows  toward 
denser  sap  and  so  on  until  large  ducts  are  reached. 

Plant  peas,  beans,  corn  or  buckwheat  in  soil,  distilled  water,  and 
undistilled  water.  The  water  cultures  can  be  set  up  by  tying  a  thin 
piece  of  cotton  over  the  top  of  a  glass  jar  and  germinating  the  seed  on 
it.  Note  the  time  they  grow  equally  well  and  give  reason,  and  any 
difference  afterwards. 


71 

Germinate  a  few  seeds  between  blotting  paper,  and  apply  blue  lit- 
mus paper.  Acid  property  of  root  hairs  sets  free  chemical  compounds 
of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  etc.,  which  are  deposited  in  the  soil  and 
not  soluble  in  water.     Germinate  seeds  in  shells. 

3.  Wilting  of  Plants. 

(a)  liemove  leaves  from  a  geranium  or  coleus;  place  some  in  open 

aid  and  others  under  a  glass.  Examine  in  a  few  hours. 
Put  a  branch  in  a  jar  of  water  with  top  exposed  to  air,  and 
one  with  top  covered.  Note  any  difference  in  twenty-four 
hours. 

(b)  What  enables  tender,  succulent  shoots  to  stand  erect? 

(1)  Remove  successively  strips  from  the  petiole  of  a  rhubarb 
leaf  six  inches  long.  Note  the  effect.  Replace  the 
strips.     What  do  you  notice? 

(2)  Out  a  transverse  section  half  an  inch  in  length  from  a 
willow  shoot  an  inch  in  diameter.  Remove  the  bark. 
Try  to  replace  it. 

4.  Root  Pressure. 

Observe  sap  exuding  from  pruned  branches  and  vines  in  spring. 

Root  pressure  in  nettle  sufficient  to  hold  a  column  of  water  fifteen 
feet;  in  vine,  sufficient  to  support  a  column  of  water  6.5  feet;  in  birch, 
sufficient  to  support  a  column  of  water  84.7  feet. 

Experiment  to  demonstrate  root  pressure. — A  plant  in  the  open  may 
be  used  or  a  plant  grown  in  a  pot.  Cut  the  stem  two  inches  from  soil. 
Connect  a  long  glass  tube  of  small  bore  and  the  cut  stem  in  the  soil 
with  a  short  piece  of  rubber  tubing.  Moisten  end  of  stem.  Support 
the  glass  tubing.  Observe  the  water  rising  in  the  tube.  Does  it  rise 
continuously  or  rise  and  fall? 

TRANSPIRATION  OF  MOISTURE. 

1.  Experiments. 

(a)  Place  a  handful  of  fresh,  green,  succulent  leaves  with  dry  sur- 

faces under  a  glass  jar  and  place  in  light  or  sunlight.  Set 
up  another  jar  in  exactly  the  same  way  but  containing  no 
leaves.     In  six  hours  compare  results. 

(b)  Cover  the  surface  of  the  soil  of  an  actively  growing  plant,  in 

a  pot,  with  a  sheet  of  rubber  cloth,  to  prevent  evaporation. 
Cover  with  a  bell  jar  and  place  in  the  sunlight. 

(c)  Take  a  young  oak,  maple,  or  peach  tree.     Cut  a  slit  from  the 

circumference  to  a  small  hole  in  the  center  of  a  circular 
piece  of  cardboard.  Slip  the  stem  of  the  plant  through  slit 
to  the  small  hole.  Seal  the  opening  around  the  stem  and 
the  opening  to  edge  of  cardboard.     Place  the  cardboard  over 


72 

a  wide  mouthed  jar,  allowing  the  roots  to  extend  into  water. 
Cover  part  of  plant  above  the  circle  with  a  jar  and  seal. 
Compare  amount  of  water  given  off  with  leaf  area.  Esti- 
mate amount  of  water  given  off  by  a  tree,  a  forest,  a  field  of 
corn  or  wheat, 
(d)  Immerse  geranium,  coleus,  some  seedlings  in  hot  water.  An- 
other set  in  cold  water.  Spread  out  in  a  dry  room.  Make 
repeated  comparisons  during  the  day.     Results. 

PATH  OF  LIQUIDS  IN  PLANTS. 

Experiments, 
(a)  Insert  the  cut  ends  of  a  leafy  shoot  in  colored  water — nastur- 
tium, "touch-me-not,"  caladium,  corn,  horse-chestnut.  Note 
appearance  of  leaves.  Make  a  cross  section  and  longitu- 
dinal section  of  the  stem.  Try  different  plants.  In  how 
many  are  the  colored  areas  in  a  circle?  In  how  many  are 
they  scattered  irregularly?  Associate  arrangement  of  fibre, 
vascular  bundles,  with  structure  of  seed  monocotyledons 
and  dicotyledons. 

RESPIRATION  OF  PLANTS. 

(a)  Put  some  peas  soaked  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  in  a 

pint  fruit  jar.  Keep  in  a  warm  place  securely  sealed  for 
twenty-four  hours. '  Remove  cover  and  quickly  pour  into  jar 
some  lime  water  and  seal  again.  Note  precipitation  of  cal- 
cium carbonate. 

(b)  Burn  a  splinter  or  sandle  in  a  jar,  forming  carbon  di-oxide. 

Pour  in  lime  water.  Note  precipitation  of  calcium  car- 
bonate. 

(c)  Through  a  tube,  blow  your  breath  into  some  lime  water.    Note 

precipitation  of  calcium  carbonate. 
Compare  respiration  of  plants  and  animals. 

CARBON  FOOD  OF  PLANTS. 

(a)  Test  corn  starch  with  iodine  to  get  the  well  known  reaction 

for  starch;  cut  a  potato  and  scrape  the  cut  surface  into  a 
pulp;  beans;  corn. 

(b)  Test  leaves  that  have  grown  in  light;    in  dark;    seedlings. 

First  remove  chlorophyll  by  boiling  in  alcohol. 


73 

(c)  Cover  the  upper  and  under  surface  of  a  part  of  a  leaf  with  a 

piece  of  cork  and  place  in  sunlight.  Next  day  remove  cork 
and  test  leaves  for  starch. 

(d)  Give  a  reason  why  the  upper  surface  of   leaves  is   always 

turned  to  the  light.  Note  shape  and  arrangement  of  leaves 
with  relation  to  sunlight. 

GROWTH  OF  PLANTS. 

1.  Growth  of  Roots. 

(a)  Germination. 

Soak  peas,  beans,  corn,  squash,  pumpkin,  etc.,  for  twelve 
hours;  place  between  folds  of  paper  or  cloth;  keep  moist  and 
warm. 

(b)  Pumpkin. 

When  radicle  or  first  root  is  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length; 
beginning  with  the  tip,  mark  off  sections  one-sixteenth  of  an 
inch  in  length.  Keep  moist  and  warm.  Determine  the 
growing  part  of  root. 

2.  Growth  of  Stem. 

Embryo  develops  into  root,  stems  and  leaves.  Nodes  are  enlarge- 
ments at  the  juncj;ure  of  the  leaves  with  the  stem;  internodes,  spaces 
on  stem  between  successive  nodes. 

(a)  Use  a  bean  or  corn  seedling.  Mark  off  several  internodes  into 
sections  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  apart.  Note  region  of 
greatest  elongation.     Compare  growth  of  root  and  stem. 

IRRITABILITY. 

1.  Influence  of  Earth  on  Direction  of  Growth. 

(a)  Pin  germinating  peas,  beans,  or  squash  seeds  marked  off  as 

above,  on  a  large  cork  in  such  a  position  that  one  may  be 
horizontal,  one  in  a  normal  position,  one  in  inverted  posi- 
tion. Keep  moist  and  warm.  What  changes  do  you  ob- 
serve?    What  is  the  region  of  greatest  activity. 

(b)  Remove  tip  of  roots  of  other  seedlings  and  place  on  corks  as 

above.     Contrast  the  two  experiments. 

(c)  Turn  pot  containing  germinating  seedlings  over  on  the  side. 

Note  effect. 

2.  Influence  of  Light. 

(a)  Plant  seeds  in  dark,  shade  and  light. 

(b)  Subject  seedlings  to  one  sided  illumination. 

(c)  Put  growing  seedlings  in  a  dark  chamber  with  small  opening. 


-74 

3.  '^Sleep  of  Plants." 

(a)  Folding  of  leayes — clover,  oxalis,  lupine,  acacia.     Note  man- 

ner of  folding. 

(b)  Seedlings — cotyledons  fold  up  and  leaves  down. 

(c)  Upper  surface  of  leaves  avoids  zenith  at  night  to  prevent  ra- 

diation of  heat. 

4.  Movement,  Result  of  External  Stimuli. 

(a)  Twining  stem  of  dodder. 

(b)  Tendrils  of  grai)e,  flowering  cucumber,  sweet  pea. 

(c)  Leaves  of  sensitive  plant,  Venus  fly-trap,  drosera. 

BIRDS. 

I.  Relation  of  Birds  to  Man. 

1.  Scientific — Type  of  Animal  Kingdom. 

2.  Economic — Service  Rendered. 

(a)  Checking  increase  of  insects. 

(b)  Devouring  small  rodents. 

(c)  Destroying  seeds  of  harmful  plants. 

(d)  Acting  as  scavengers. 

3.  Aesthetic — Appreciation  of  Birds. 

(a)  Beauty  of  form  and  plumage. 

(b)  Grace  of  motion. 

(c)  Power  of  song. 

(d)  Habits  of  life. 

II.  Outline  for  Identification. 

1.  Size — Compare  with  Sparrow  or  Robin. 

2.  Color. 

(a)  Attractive — oriole,  cardinal,  tanager. 

(b)  Protective — song  sparrow,  quail,  creeper. 

3.  Markings. 

(a)  Top  of  head — kinglet,  chickadee. 

(b)  Back — oriole,  bobolink. 

(c)  Breast — kingfisher,  plover. 

(d)  Wings — golden-winged  woodpecker,  night  hawk. 

(e)  Tail — meadow  lark,  king  bird,  cedar  bird. 

4.  Shape. 

(a)  Body. 

(1)  Long  and  slender;  short  and  thick. 

(2)  Relation  of  shape  to  habitat — earth,  air  and  water. 

(b)  Bill. 

(1)  Short  and  stout;  long  and  slender;  long  and  heavy; 
slender  and  delicate;  hooked;  curved;  crossed. 


75 


(2)  Relate  shape  of  bill  lo  food  and  manner  of  getting  it. 

(c)  Wing. 

(1)  Short  and  round;  long  and  slender. 

(2)  Relate  shape  of  wings  to  flight,  food,  and  development 

of  feet. 

(d)  Tail. 

(1)  Square;  notched;  fan-shaped;  graduated;  pointed  for 

bracing;  long  and  forked  for  steering;  short  and  tipped 
with  spines  for  bracing. 

(2)  Relate  shape  of  tail  to  food  getting. 

(e)  Feet. 

(1)  AVeak;  strong;  webbed. 

(2)  Compare  feet  and  legs  of  divers,  swimmers,   waders. 

scratchers,  climbers,  perchers  and  birds  of  prey. 

(f)  Movements. 

(1)  Hopping,  walking,  creeping,  climbing,  flying,  wading, 
diving,  swimming. 

(g)  Flight. 

(1)  Rapid — direct,  abrupt  and  zigzag;  smooth  and  circling. 

(2)  Slow — flapping;  sailing  and  soaring;  flapping  and  sail- 

ing alternately;  oblique  flight;  undulatory  flight. 

(3)  Relate  flight  to  food  getting. 
III.  Parts  of  a  Bird. 


1.  Head. 

(a)  Culmen. 

(b)  Upper  mandibles. 

(c)  Lower  mandibles. 

(d)  Forehead. 

(e)  Crown. 

(f)  Occiput. 

(g)  Nape, 
(h)  Eyes. 

(i)    Circum  orbicular  region, 
(j)    Ear. 

2.  Body. 

(a)  Back. 

(b)  Interscapular  region. 

(c)  Scapulars. 

(d)  Rump. 

(e)  Upper  tail  coverts. 

3.  Wings. 

(a)  Primary  feathers. 

(b)  Secondary  feathers. 

(c)  Tertiary  feathers. 


(k)  Circum  auricular  region. 

(1)    Ear  coverts. 

(m)  Cheek. 

(n)  Side  of  Neck. 

(o)  Jugulum. 

(p)  Throat. 

(q)  Chin. 

(r)   Submaxillary  line. 

(s)   Gape. 


(f)  Tail  feathers. 

(g)  Lower  tail  coverts, 
(h)  Abdomen. 

(i)  Breast, 

(j)  Sides. 

(d)  Greater  wing  coverts. 

(e)  Middle  wing  coverts. 

(f)  Lesser  wing  coverts. 


76 

4.  Legs. 

(a)  Tibia.  (e)  Middle  toe. 

(b)  Tarsus.  (f)    Outer  toe. 
(e)  Carpel  joint.  (g)  Inner  toe. 
(d)  Hind  toe. 

IV.  Bird  Music. 

1.  Songs. 

(a)  Character  of  song. 

(b)  Call  notes;  alarm  calls. 

(c)  Manner  and  time  of  singing. 

2.  Sexual  Differences  in  Song. 

(a)  Compare  notes  of  male  and  female. 

(b)  Relate  color  to  song. 

V.  Color  of  Birds. 

1.  Variation  of  Color. 

(a)  With  age — robin,  bobolink. 

(b)  With  seasons — tanager,  snow-bunting. 

(c)  During  moulting  and  wearing  off  of  feathers. 

2.  Color  in  Relation  to  Haunts  and  Habits. 

(a)  Protective — against  enemies — quail,  sparrow. 

(b)  Deceptive — to  prey — owl,  hawk. 

(c)  Attractive — in  harmony  with  leaves  and  flowers — oriole,  hum- 

ming bird,  warbler. 

3.  Sexual  Differences. 

(a)  Tanager,  bobolink,  peacock,  pheasant. 
Read  "The  Law  Which  Underlies  Protective  Coloration,"  in  "The 
Auk,"  New  York  City,  Vol.  XIII,  p.  124. 

4.  Relation  of  Color  to  Nesting  Habits. 

(a)  Location. 

(1)  Ground — meadow  lark,  song  sparrow. 

(2)  Trunks  of  trees — woodpeckers;  holes — bluebird. 

(3)  Branches — robin,  cat  bird. 

(4)  Pendant  from  branch — oriole. 

(5)  Banks — bank  swallow,  kingfisher. 
.5.  Form  of  Nest. 

(a)  Open  nests — thrushes. 

(b)  Pocket  shaped — oriole. 

(c)  Basket  shaped — vireo. 

(d)  Dome  shaped — oven  bird. 

(e)  Wall  pocket  shaped — chimney  swift. 


77 

1).  Relation  of  Color  to  Song. 

(a)  Dull     color  —  generally     beautiful     song  —  song     sparrow, 

thrushes,  vireo. 

(b)  Brilliant  colors — usually  unpleasant  notes — peacock,  wood- 

pecker, humming  bird. 

VI.  Food. 

1.  Kinds  of  Food. 

(a)  Weed  seeds,  fruit. 

(b)  Animal — eggs,  larvae,  pupae,  insects;  birds;  fish;  mice  and 

rats. 

2.  Manner  of  Obtaining  Food. 

(a)  On  the  wing. 

(b)  With  call  of  warning. 

(c)  In  wait  for  prey. 

(d)  Oh  prey  without  warning. 

VII.  Insect-Eating  Birds. 

1.  Potato  Beetle. 

Rose-breasted  grossbeak,  cuckoo,  quail,  hairy  woodpecker. 

2.  Tent  Caterpillar. 

Crow,  chickadee,  oriole,  red-eyed  vireo,  yellow-billed  cuckoo. 

3.  Cutworms. 

Robin,  crow,  cat  bird,  house  wren,  meadow  lark,  cow  bird. 

4.  Ants. 

Catbird,  thrasher,  house  wren,  woodpecker. 

5.  Scale  Insects. 

Woodpeckers,  cedar  bird,  bush- tit.  . 

G.May  Beetle. 

Hermit  thrush,  robin,  meadow  lark,  brown  thrasher,  bue-bird,  cat 
bird,  blue  jay. 

7.  Weevils. 

Crow,  crow  blackbird,  red- winged  blackbird,  Baltimore  oriole,  cat 
bird,  cow  bird,  scarlet  tanager. 

8.  Chinch  Bug. 

Brown  thrasher,  meadow  lark,  cat  bird,  red-eyed  vireo,  robin,  bob 
white. 

9.  Wire  Worm. 

Red-winged  blackbird,  crow  blackbird,  crow,  woodpecker,  brown 
thrasher,  cat  bird,  scarlet  tanager,  oriole  cow  bird. 

10.  Crane  Flies. 

Robin,  cat  bird,  wood  thrush,  crow,  crow  blackbird,  red- winged 
blackbird. 

11.  Cotton  Worms. 

Ulu^jiird.    blue   jay,    red- winded    blackbird,    thrushes,    prairie 
chicke^«*j4l^l,  kilden,  bobolink,,  cardinal. 


78 

12.  Gypsy  Moth. 

Yellow-billed  cuckoo,  black-billed  cuckoo,  hairy  woodpecker, 
downy  woodpecker^  king  bird,  great-crested  flycatcher,  Phoebe, 
wood  pewee,  blue  jay. 

13.  Grasshoppers  and  Crickets. 

Mocking  bird,  thrasher,  bluebird,  wren,  shore  lark,  goldfinch, 
song  sparrow,  junco,  rose-breasted  grossbeak,  cardinal,  bobo 
link,  cow  bird,  blue  jay. 

14.  Army  Worm. 

King  bird,  Phoebe,  bobolink,  cow  bird,  Baltimore  oriole,  robin, 

VIII.  Nesting  Habits  of  Birds. 

1.  Location  of  Nests. 

(a)  Land  birds. 

(b)  Water  birds. 

(c)  Aerial  birds. 

2.  Structure. 

(a)  Form,  size,  material. 

(b)  Time  and  method  of  construction. 

3.  Eggs. 

(a)  Number,  color,  markings. 

(b)  Time  of  incubation. 

4.  Care  of  Young. 

(a)  Feeding. 

(b)  Teaching  to  fly. 

IX.  Migration. 

1.  Migrative  and  Breeding  Eecords. 

(a)  Name  of  bird  and  order. 

(b)  Common  name. 

(c)  Summer  residents. 

(1)  Date  of  spring  arrival. 

(2)  Date  of  fall  departure. 

(d)  Winter  residents. 

(1)  Date  of  fall  arrival. 

(2)  Date  of  spring  departure. 

2.  Breeding  Records. 

(a)  Date  of  laying  of  eggs. 

(b)  Number  of  eggs. 

(c)  Time  of  incubation. 

(d)  Number  of  3^oung  liatched;  reared. 

3.  Occurrence. 

(a)  Abundant. 

(b)  Common  or  rare. 

(c)  Number  at  different  seasons. 


79 


4.  Locality. 

(a)  Where  observed. 

(b)  Character  of  immediate  vicinity. 

(1)  Gardens  and  orchards— oriole. 
'  (2)  Lanes  and  highways— song  sparrow, 

(3)  Open  meadows — meadow  lark. 

(4)  Thickets  of  undergrowth — thrush. 
(.5)  Dense  woods— hermit  thrush. 

(6)  Rivers  and  lakes— kingfisher,  snipe. 

(7)  Marshes — marsh  wren,  bittern. 

X.  Classification. 

1.  Orders  and  Families  Based  Upon. 

(a)  Skeletal. 

(b)  Muscular. 

(c)  Visceral. 

2.  Genera — External  Characteristics. 

(a)  Bill,  feet,  wings  and  tail. 

3.  Species  and  Sub-Species. 

(a)  Color  and  size. 


XI.  Key  to  Orders. 
WATER  BIRDS. 

A.  Divers. 

Order  I.  Pygopodes. 

Grebe,  loon,  auk. 
Order        11.  Longipennes— long-winged. 

Gull,  tern. 
Order      III.  Tubinares. 

Albatross,  petrel. 
Order      IV.  Steganopodes.  ^ 

Gannet,  cormorant,  pelican. 

B.  Swimmers. 

Order         V.  Anseres — swimmers. 
Duck,  goose,  swan. 

C.  Waders. 

Order      VI.  Odontoglossae. 
"""  Flamingo. 

\  XX^Serotiiones. 

<^     Heron,  stork,  ibis. 


<b 


^aludicolae. 
Crane,  rail. 


80 


SHORE  BIRDS. 


Order      IX.  Limicolae. 

Phalarope,  snipe,  plover. 


LAND  BIRDS. 

Order        X.  Gallinae — seratchers. 

Turkey,  grouse,  quail. 
Order      XI.  Columbae. 

Pigeon,  dove. 
Order     XII.  Raptores — birds  of  prey. 

Vulture,  hawk,  owl. 
Order  XIII.  Psittacl. 

Parrot,  paraquet. 
Order  XIV.  Coccyges. 

Cuckoo,  kingfisher. 
Order     XV.  Pici. 

Woodpecker. 
Order   XVI.  Machrochires. 

Goat  sucker,  swift,  humming  bird. 
OrderXVII.  Passeres — perches. 

Flycatcher,  bluebird,  blue  jay,  oriole,  sparrow, 
finch,  swallow,  vireo,  warbler,  wren,  thrush. 

The  work  on  birds  has  been  outlined  very  much  in  detail,  simple 
enough  to  be  of  use  to  the  most  casual  observer,  and  comprehensive 
enough  to  be  of  value  to  pupils  who  wish  to  go.  more  deeply  into  the 
subject.  It  should  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  chief  aim  of  this 
work  is  to  stimulate  the  effort  and  enthusiasm  of  the  individual  pupil. 
Very  effective  work  can  be  accomplished  by  having  each  pupil  select  a 
pair  of  birds,  and  make  them  the  object  of  his  especial  attention, 
comparing  them  with  other  birds"  of  the  same  species  and  order.  An 
interest  in  one  bird  is  a  stepping  stone  to  a  knowledge  of  many  birds. 

Encourage  children  to  make  boxes  and  nesting  places  for  birds; 
to  supply  them  with  food  during  any  stress  of  weather;  to  attempt 
to  tame  wild  birds;  to  photograph  birds  from  life.  Discourage  all 
egg  collecting  and  desire  for  a  collection  of  stuffed  birds.  Make  the 
living,  moving,  singing  bird  the  object  of  supreme  interest. 

Classification  taken  from  ^'Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North 
America,"  by  Frank  M.  Chapman. 


MINERALS. 

After  making  observations  of  the  rock  structui^^ 
its  relation  to  animals,  plants  and  soil,  it  is  importa^ 
to  become  acquainted  with  some  of  the  most  con^- 
their  characteristics,  composition  and  weathe;'^  J 

A. 


81 

A  mineral  may  be  defined  as  a  homogeneous  solid,  of  definite  chemi- 
cal composition,  occurring  in  nature,  but  not  of  apparent  organic 
origin. 

I.  Minerals. 

1.  Mixtures. 

Granite,  quartz,  mica  and  feldspar. 

2.  Compounds. 

Quartz — silicon  and  oxygen. 

3.  Elements. 

Oxygen,  gold,  mercury. 
An  element  is  a  substance  which  cannot  be  reduced  into  other  ele 
ments;  silver,  gold. 

4.  Important  Elements  in  Earth's  Crust. 

(a)  Gaseous. 

Oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  chlorine. 

(b)  Liquid. 

Mercury. 

(c)  Solid. 

Silicon,  aluminum,  iron,  calcium,  magnesium,  potassium, 
sodium,  carbon,  phosphorus,  sulphur. 

5.  Important  Minerals  in  Earth's  Crust. 

(a)  Quartz.  i  i 

Flint;  hornstone;  white,  brown,  yellow  or  black  pebbles, 
uniform  in  color;  sand;  amethyst;  false  topaz;  smoky 
quartz;  cairngorm  stones;  agate,  cornelian. 

(b)  Silicates — rocks  containing  silica. 

Feldspar,  mica,  hornbl^d,  augite  or  pyroxene,  garnet,  ser- 
pentine, chlorite,  tourmaline,  olivine. 

(c)  Carbonates — compounds  of  carbonic  acid. 

Calcite — calcium  carbonate;  magnesium  limestone  or  dolo- 
mite. 

(d)  Sulphates — compounds  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Gypsum — sulphate  of  lime;  barite — barium  sulphate;  cop- 
peras or  green  vitriol — iron  sulphate. 

(e)  Ores — metal  bearing  minerals. 

Iron  pyrites;  chalcopyrites  or  copper  pyrites;  magnetite  or 
magnetic  iron  ore;  hematite  or  specular  iron  ore;  limonite 
— brownish  yellow  iron  ore;  siderite  or  spathic  iron  ore; 
chalcopyrites,  or  yellow  copper  ore;  galenite,  or  lead  ore; 
malachite — green  copper  carbonate;  azurite — blue  copper 
carbonate. 


82 

II.  Kinds  of  Rock. 

1.  Calcareous. 

Limestone;  magnesium  limestone;  chalk;  marble. 

2.  Silicious. 

Sandstone — dull,  gray,  brown,  brownish-red  and  red. 

3.  Conglomerates. 

Mass  of  smooth,  rounded  fragments,  cemented  in  a  matrix;  lime- 
stone, shell,  quartz-pebble,  granite-pebble,  and  volcanic  con- 
glomerates. 

4.  Shale. 

Shale — consolidated  fine  sand,  mud  or  clay;  color,  gray,  yellowish, 
brown  or  black.  Black  most  common,  due  to  organic  remains 
of  animals  and  plants. 

5.  Argillaceous  Sandstone. 

Consolidated  clayey  beds  of  sandstone,  which  usually  break  into 
thin  slabs,  flagstones  for  sidewalks. 

6.  Slate. 

Structure  fine  and  firmer  than  shale.  Splits  easily  and  evenly. 
Used  for  roofing. 

7.  Granite. 

Composition — quartz,  feldspar,  mica,  mixed  promiscuously  to- 
gether. Quartz,  grayish  or  smoky  in  color,  no  cleavage;  feld- 
spar— white  or  flesh-red,  good  cleavage,  sparkling  faces  in  sun; 
mica — white,  brownish  or  black,  perfect  cleavage;  quartz  and 
feldspar  hard — mica  soft. 

8.  Gneiss. 

Same  constituents  as  granite,  Jbut  arranged  in  planes;  owing  to 
cleavage  of  mica,  rock  splits  into  layers. 

9.  Mica  Schist. 

Constituents  same  as  granite  and  gneiss — mica  and  quartz  most 
abundant;  divides  into  thin  layers.  No  dividing  line  batw^ec 
granite,  gneiss  and  mica  schist.  ^ 

10.  Syenite. 

Granite-lick  rock,  mica  replaced  by  hornblend;  little  or  no  quartz: 

11.  Trap,  Basalt,  Lavas  or  Volcanic  Rocks. 
Igneous  rocks,  cooled  from  fusion. 

TIL  Structure  of  Rocks. 

1.  Stratified  Rock — layers  piled  one  upon  another. 

(a)  Sandstone. 

(b)  Limestone. 

(c)  Shale. 

(d)  Slate. 


83 

2.  Unstratified  Rock— nosSe  up  of  layers. 

(a)  Granite.  ' 

(b)  Trap. 

IV.  Making  of  Rock.  • 

1.  Igneous  Rocks— formed/!  fusion. 

(a)  Holocrystalline— cd>  grained;  granite. 

(b)  Crjtocrjstalline-f^rained;  obsidian. 

2.  Sedimentary  Rock. 

(a)  Deposition  from  s:'ion. 

(1)  Stalactites  oulagmites  in  caves. 

(2)  Calcareous  a. 

(b)  Mechanical  agecof  water. 

(1)  Fragmentaick— parts  of  older  rocks. 

(2)  Shales,  sl§^  sandstone  and  conglomerates. 

(c)  Organic  remain 

\              (^)  I^iJ^^ston^corals,  shells,  crinoids,  and  foraminifera. 
^              (2)  SiliciouH^eposits — plants — diatoms;    animals — radio- 
^  _^ Parian  sponges. 


?; 


(d)  Making  of  ^t  beds. 

(1)  Dep(>  qI  leaves,  stems,  and  remains  of  plants. 
w>,(2)  Cri^l^h  and  death  of  sphagnum  moss. 
neat  /^^^^ains  of  animals, 
(caused/  ^^  streams. 

J^ill  a  ST^  Abrasion  of  stream  bed  and  banks, 
end  F"^^  Transportation  of  material  in  suspension  and  solution. 
j-jjw^(3)  Deposition  of  detritus.     Depends  upon  volume  and  velo- 
, .  /  city  of  stream. 

\^)    Work  of  heat. 

(1)  Expansion  and  contraction  from  change  of  temperature. 

(2)  Formation  of  rock  by  fusion. 
(g)  Cementing  of  rocks  by 

(1)  Carbonate  of  lime;  limestone,  clay  and  sandstone. 

(2)  Iron;  sandstone. 

(3)  Silica;  sandstone, 
(h)  Metamorphosis. 

(1)  Change  in  texture — limestone  to  marble. 

(2)  Rearrangement  of  material — granite  to  gneiss. 


PHYSICS. 


WATER. 


(a)  Properties — liquid,  clear,  colorless,  transparent,  tasteless, 
odorless,  cannot  be  compressed  into  smaller  space,  presses 
in  all  directions  equally. 


(b)  Relation— to  animals,  plants,  ^il,  and  medium  for  transpor- 
tation. 

1.  Pressure  of  Liquids.  \ 

(a)  Presses  downward  and  sidew^^^vs. 

With  a  nail  make  a  row  of  hbles  near  the  bottom  of  a  baking 
powder  can;  fill  with  wa^er.  Compare  streams  issuing 
from  holes.  Make  a  row^f  small  holes  and  row  of  larger 
holes  down  the  side  of  ^similar  can;  fill  with  water. 
Compare  streams  from  thr^e  sets  of  holes. 

(b)  Pressure  upward  and  in  every  i^irection. 

(1)  Press  glass  down  in  a  ves^^l  of  water.^ 

(2)  Partly  fill  a  jar  with  wat€*r;  float  a  circular  piece  of 

cardboard  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  Place  the 
large  end  of  an  argand  lan^P  chimney  on  the  card  and 
press  down.  What  suppc>rts  the  card?  Carefully 
pour  water  into  the  chimnej-  Compare  the  height  of 
the  water  in  chimney  and  jar  when  the  card  flo'vts 
away.  v 

(c)  Buoyancy  of  liquids.  \ 

(1)  Buoyancy  of  water.  ^ 

(a)  Corks  in  water;  buoys;  life  hoM»,  preservers. 

(2)  Buoyancy  of  salt  water.  v^^  ..ouous 

(a)  Learning  to  swim  in  fresh  and  salf^eavage; 

(b)  Put  an  egg  in  a  jar  of  water;  it  ^ces  in^^J^ 

Through  a  tube  or  funnel  pour  stron^quap^z  ^^ter 
to  the  bottom  of  the  jar.     What  mak*  egg 

change  position?     Stir  the  water.     Wha  ses 

the  egg  to  rise  to  the  top?  \^^^ 

(3)  Bouyancy  of  mercury,  salt  and  fresh  water.  ^'^ 

(4)  Specific  gravity. 

(a)  Floating  vessels  and  icebergs. 

(b)  Oil  on  water;  cream  on  milk. 

2.  Water  as  a  Solvent. 

(a)  Action  on  salt,  sugar,  alum,  soda,  etc. 

(b)  Uses  of  water  dependent  upon  solvent  power. 

(1)  Formation  of  caves  and  springs. 

(2)  Assimilation  of  minerals  by  plants. 

(3)  Lime  in  solution  in  ocean  and  rivers  used  by  coral  and 

shell  animals. 

3.  Water  as  Vapor. 

(a)  Evaporation.     Elffect  of  heat  upon  evaporation;  heat  at  dif- 

ferent times  of  day;  seasons;  zones. 

(b)  Condensation.     Fog,  mist,   clouds,  rain,   steam.     Relations. 

Effect  of  cold  upon  vapor.     Condensation  in  different  lati- 
tudes and  altitudes. 


85 

(c)  Snow  and  ice.  Compare  snow,  ice  and  water.  Meaning  of 
frozen.  Compare,  snow,  ice  and  hail.  Uses  of  snow  and 
ice.     Relations. 

Snow  a  warm  covering  for  plant  and  animal  life,  poor 
conductor  of  heat,  prevents  radiation  of  heat.     Ice  a  protec- 
'  tion  to  fish  in  rivers  and  lakes. 

ATMOSPHERIC  PRESSURE. 

1.  Air  Presses  Equally  in  all  Directions. 

(a)  Fill  a  glass  with  water.     Press  a  blotter  down  on  the  top  of  it; 

invert  the  glass;  turn  in  all  directions.  What  causes  the 
blotter  to  remain? 

(b)  Cut  a  circle  from  a  soft  piece  of  leather;  draw  a  cord  through 

a  hole  in  t^e  center,  making  it  air  tight;  wet  the  leather; 
press  it  on  a  slate  or  smooth  stone,  forcing  all  the  air  out. 
Suspend  slate  by  the  string.  What  prevents  it  from  fall- 
ing? 

(c)  Boil  an  egg  hard.     Remove  the  shell.     Heat  a  bottle  whose 

opening  is  almost  the  size  of  the  egg.  Put  the  egg  in  the 
opening  and  put  in  a  cool  place.  What  forces  the  egg  into 
the  bottle? 

(d)  Weigh  a  corked  test  tube  filled  with  air.     Remove  the  cork 

and  heat  the  test  tube.     Recork  while  hot  and  weigh.     What 
caused  the  difference  in  weight? 

(e)  Fill  a  glass  tube  closed  at  one  end  with  water  and  place  open 

end  under  the  surface  of  a  vessel  of  water.  What  supports 
the  column  of  water? 

2.  Variation  of  Pressure. 

(a)  Altitude. 

(b)  Latitude. 

(c)  Amount  of  vapor  contained.     Consult  barometer. 

3.  Pumps. 

Relation  of  pressure  of  atmosphere  to  lifting  pump.  Construc- 
tion, action  and  uses  of  lifting  pump.     Windmills. 

Relation  of  pressure,  compressibility  and  elasticity  of  atmosphere 
to  force  pump.     Uses  of  force  pump. 

4.  Siphon. 

Formation  of  siphon,  action,  uses.  Conducting  water,  emptying 
casks,  etc.,  flow  of  springs. 


HEAT. 


Expansion  and  Contraction. 
(a)  Gases — air — wind. 


(b)  Liquids — water — evaporation — condensation. 

(c)  Solids — rock — disintegration  of  rock. 

1.  Gases. 
Experiments. 

(1)  Half  fill  a  bladder  with  air,  tie  securely,  and  place  in  front  of 

the  fire.  It  begins  to  swell,  almost  at  once,  and  is  soon 
quite  full.     Heat  expands  gases. 

(2)  Half  fill  a  rubber  balloon  with  air  and  tie  securely.     Place  in 

water  and  heat  gradually.  The  balloon  enlarges.  Plunge 
it  into  cold  water.  It  becomes  smaller.  Why?  Cold  con- 
tracts gases. 

(3)  Blow  thistle  down  or  milkweed  pappus  over  a  hot  stove  or 

register.  They  rise.  Why?  The  air  is  heated,  expands, 
and  is  forced  up  by  cold  currents. 

(4)  Observe  the  direction  of  sparks,  smoke  and  cinders  of  a  bon- 

fire; the  disturbance  of  the  leaves  around  the  fire.  Account 
for  the  result.  The  air  is  heated,  expands,  thus  carrying 
sparks,  smoke  and  cinders.  The  cold  air  coming  from  all 
sides  to  replace  the  heated  air,  forms  currents  carrying  the 
scattered  leaves  toward  the  fire. 

Kelate  these  experiments  to  absorption  and  radiation  of 
heat  by  earth's  surface  and  production  of  winds. 

2.  Liquids. 

(1)  Fit  a  glass  tubing  through  a  cork.    Fill  a  test  tube  with  col- 

ored water.  Press  in  the  cork,  causing  the  water  to  stand 
in  the  tube  just  above  the  cork.  Heat  the  water.  It  rises 
in  the  tube.  Why?  Heat  expends  liquids.  Cool  the  tube. 
The  water  falls.  Cold  causes  liquids  to  contract.  Water  is 
the  exception.  It  contracts  until  it  reaches  freezing  point 
and  then  expands.  Put  a  bottle  filled  with  water  in  a  cold 
place  where  the  water  will  freeze.  What  causes  the  bottle 
to  burst?  What  causes  the  rocks  to  crack  in  winter?  Ob- 
serve ledges  of  rocks;  do  you  see  any  effects  of  freezing?  Ob- 
serve the  upheaval  of  soil  in  damp  places  in  winter.  What 
effect  does  freezing  have  upon  wet,  clay  soil?  What  effect 
does  this  freezing  have  upon  the  disintegration  of  rock?  Re- 
late this  disintegration  to  liberation  of  plant  food  in  the 
rock. 

(2)  Put  one-half  pint  of  water  into  vessels  4x4x4  inches,  4x8x2 

inches,  4x2x8  inches,  4x4x2  inches.  Expose  to  great  heat, 
cold,  wind,  for  twenty-four  hours  and  measure  the  water  in 
each  vessel.  Relate  the  amount  of  evaporation  in  the  deep 
and  shallow  vessels  to  deep  and  shnllow  bodies  of  water. 
Relate  the  amount  evaporated  in  plaros  of  different  tempera- 
tures to  plares  of  different  altitudes  and  latitudes. 

Boil  a  gill  of  water  until  all  passes  off  as  vapor.    Put  a 


87 

gill  of  water  in  a  plate,  a  cup,  a  bottle.  Record  the  length 
of  time  taken  for  the  water  to  evaporate  from  each  vessel. 
Relate  time  to  amount  of  heat  and  surface  exposed. 

Hold  a  cold  glass  in  steam.  What  causes  the  water  to 
form  into  drops.  Blow  your  breath  on  a  cold  window  pane. 
Breathe  deeply  in  cold  air.  What  causes  fogs,  clouds,  dew, 
and  frost?  Relate  evaporation  and  condensation  to  rain- 
fall. 
(3)  Put  a  thermometer  into  cold  water.  The  mercury  descends 
in  the  tube.  Heat  the  water.  The  mercury  ascends  in  the 
tube.     Why?     Heat  expands  liquids. 

3.  Solids. 

(1)  Fit  a  marble  into  a  steel  or  iron  ring.    Heat  the  ring.    The 

marble  falls  through.  Why?  Heat  causes  solids  to  ex- 
pand. Cool  the  ring;  the  marble  cannot  fall  through.  Why? 
Cold  causes  solids  to  contract. 

(2)  Take  a  bar  of  iron  which  exactly  fits  into  a  hole.     Heat  the 

bar;  it  will  no  longer  pass  through.     Why? 

4.  Questions. 

(1)  Why  does  boiling  water  raise  the  tea-kettle  lid? 

(2)  Why  does  a  hot  lamp  chimney  break  when  a  drop  of  cold 

water  falls  upon  it? 

(3)  Why  is  the  tire  of  a  wheel  fitted  while  it  is  hot?     Why  is  cold 

water  then  poured  upon  it? 

(4)  In  laying  rails  for  a  railroad  why  are  the  ends  not  fastened 

together. 

(5)  Why  do  chestnuts  burst  open  with  a  loud  report  when  they  are 

roasted? 

(6)  Why  does  a  punching  ball  become  soft  in  the  cold  air  when  it 

was  firm  in  a  warm  room? 

(7)  Would  the  tires  of  a  bicycle  be  firmer  on  a  cold  day  or  a  warm 

day? 


88 


SEVENTH  GRADE. 


The  great  majority  of  pupils  never  reach  the  high  schools,  colleges, 
or  universities.  Thej  should  be  given  some  idea  of  the  relation  of 
minerals,  plants  and  animals  in  time  and  space.  Type  specimens 
of  animals  and  plants  should  be  studied  to  show  the  natural  order  of 
development.  These  should  be  compared,  as  far  as  possible,  with 
fossil  species  in  the  rocks.  It  will  be  shown  that  the  higher  types 
have  evolved  from  the  lower,  and  that  development  or  evolution  can 
be  traced  vertically  in  the  rocks,  and  horizontally  in  existing  species. 

The  relation  between  the  animal,  vegetable  and  mineral  worlds 
should  be  emphasized.  Much  of  the  work  in  this  grade  is  organizing 
and  relating  work  done  in  lower  grade. 

The  following  lessons  are  suggested  hoping  that  an  interest  may 
be  aroused  in  minerals,  and  a  desire  to  read  the  wonderful  story 
graven  in  rocks  during  past  ages.  It  is  sincerely  hoped  that  a  collec- 
tion of  specimens  will  be  secured  for  every  school.  No  neighborhood 
will  supply  all  varieties.  An  exchange  may  be  effected  between 
different  parts  of  the  State.  The  bulletin  of  the  American  Bureau 
of  Geography,  published  at  the  State  Normal  School,  Winona,  Minn., 
has  a  bureau  for  the  exchange  of  geographical  supplies.  The 
most  useful  material  is  that  which  is  secured  by  the  individual  pupil, 
during  visits  to  quarries,  bluffs,  mines,  in  his  vicinity.  Each  geo- 
graphical situation  has  its  own  history  and  interest.  Are  the  rocks 
igneous  or  sedimentary;  stratified  or  not;  horizontal,  tilted  or  folded; 
result  of  mechanical,  chemical,  or  organic  agencies.  Collect  fossil 
plants,  animals  and  minerals.  Observe  effects  of  a  heavy  rain  storm 
— gullied  hillsides  and  roads ;  flood  plain,  water  falls,  precipices,  cata- 
racts. All  the  conditions  of  a  great  river  drainage  system  may  be 
found  in  one  of  these  miniature  areas.  As  all  continents  are  made 
up  of  adjoining  drainage  areas,  the  same  land  and  water  forms  exist 
everywhere,  modified  by  altitude,  latitude  and  local  conditions. 

The  economic  side  of  the  study  of  minerals  is  important,  but  the 
vital  thing  is  that  the  children  shall  approach  the  work  with  a  proper 
spirit,  and  an  appreciation  of  the  forces  necessary  to  produce  a  crystal, 
record  the  life  history  of  a  fern  in  a  piece  of  coal,  or  deposit  a  stratum 
of  rock  40,000  feet  in  thickness. 

Collections  of  minerals  can  be  secured  from  Ward's  Natural  Science 
Establishment,  18-28  College  avenue,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Edwin  E.  Howell,  612  Seventee^nth  st.,  N.  W.,  W^ashington,  D.  C. 

A.  E.  Foote,  1317  Arch  st.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


89 

Nature  includes  all  created  things.  Nature  study  is  not  only  the 
study  of  all  created  things  but  also  all  the  changes  which  they  un- 
dergo. 

Natural  law  is  the  order  in  which  things  have  been  observed  to 
happen^  it  is  immutable;  there  are  no  exceptions.  The  relation  of 
cause  and  effect  is  the  fundamental  law  of  nature.  By  comparing 
the  geological  forces  at  work  at  the  present  time,  with  geological 
effects  of  the  past,  causes  can  be  ascribed. 

The  generally  accepted  Nebular  theory  should  be  given,  as  a  founda- 
tion for  the  work. 

I.  Nebular  Mass. 

1.  Gaseous  State — hot,  highly  expanded. 

2.  Composition — elements,  in  gaseous  state. 

(a)  Elements — about  seventy  in  number. 

(1)  Gaseous — hydrogen,  nitrogen,  chlorine,  oxygen. 

(2)  Non-metallic — sulphur  and  phosphorus. 

(3)  Metallic — iron,  lead,  tin,  mercury,  copper,  gold,  silver 

and  zinc. 


Compounds  and  Mixtures. 

Elements. 

Water,     

Oxygen  and  hydrogen. 

Air,     

Oxygen,    nitrogen. 

Carbon  dioxide,    

Protoplasm 

Oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbon  and  others. 

As  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen  and  carbon  are  so  widely  distributed, 
at  this  point  children  should  have  some  experimental  work  to  be- 
come familiar  with  the  properties  of  these  elements. 
3.  Elements. 

(a)  Oxygen. 

(1)  Sources:  air,  water,  animals,  crust  of  earth. 

(2)  Preparation:    potassium,  chlorate  and  manganese  di- 

oxide. 

(3)  Properties:  odorless,  colorless,  tasteless,  does  not  burn, 

vigorous  supporter  of  combustion. 

(4)  Experiments:  burn  in  oxygen,  splinter;  watch  spring; 

sulphur;  phosphorus;  zinc. 

(5)  Distribution:  destructive  agent  of  air;  purifies  blood  in 

human  system;  plants;  minerals. 

(b)  Nitrogen. 

'   (1)  Sources:  atmosphere,  ammonia,  animal  matter,  mush- 
rooms. 

(2)  Preparation:  burning  phosphorus  in  air. 

(3)  Properties:  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless,  does  not  burn, 

does  not  support  life,  inert. 

(4)  Distribution:  air,  soil,  plants  and  animals. 


90 

(c)  Hydrogen. 

(1)  Source:  water. 

(2)  Preparation:  sulphuric  acid  and  zinc;  hydrochloric  acid 

and  zinc;  decomposition  of  water  by  electricity. 

(3)  Properties:  colorless,  odorless,  transparent,  lightest  of 

all  bodies,  will  burn,  does  not  support  combustion. 

(4)  Distribution:  water,  animals  and  plants. 

(d)  Carbon. 

(1)  Sources :  carbon  dioxide  in  atmosphere,  plants,  animals, 

coal,  mineral  carbonates. 

(2)  Preparation:  an  element  in  nature — diamond,  graphite. 

(3)  Properties:  diamond — colorless  to  black,  transparent, 

hardest  substance  known,  refracts  light. 
Graphite — black,  soft,  crumbly. 

3.  Cooling  of  Nebular  Mass. 

(a)  Contraction  due  to  radiation  of  heat. 

(b)  Revolution  result  of  contraction. 

(c)  Centrifugal  force  due  to  revolution. 

4.  Forces  Acting  in  Nebular  Mass. 

(a)  Cohesive. 

(b)  Gravitative. 

(c)  Centrifugal. 

Give  simple  experiments  which  will  illustrate 

(a)  Cohesion  of  gases,  liquids  and  solids. 

(b)  Law  of  gravitation;  give  illustrations. 

(c)  Centrifugal  force. 

II.  Formation  of  Planets. 
Sub-central  mass. 


Planets. 

Satellites. 

Neptune 

One 

Uranus,     

Four 

Eight;   rings. 
Five 

Jupiter                 ...           ..           ..        .             .... 

Asteroids 

About  300 

Mars. 

Earth 

Venus. 
Mercury. 

One. 

III.  The  Earth. 
1.  Cooling. 

(a)  States  of  matter:  gaseous,  liquid,  solid  due  to  temperature. 

(b)  Effect  of  heat  upon  gases,  liquids  and  solids. 

(c)  Effect  of  cold  upon  gases,  liquids,  solids. 


91 

Experiments  with  heat  outlined  for  Eighth  Grade  can  be  used  hei*., 
and  results  used  in  connection  with  wind,  ocean  currents,  evaporation 
and  condensation,  and  disintegration  of  rock. 

2.  Formation  of  Earth's  Crust. 

(a)  "^Cooling  and  contraction. 

(b)  Formation  of  igneous  rock. 

(c)  Formation  of  water.     Hydrogen,  oxygen. 

(1)  Condensation  and  evaporation. 

(2)  Formation  of  rain,  lakes,  rivers,  ocean. 

(3)  Review  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 

3.  Igneous  Rocks. 

(a)  Review  lava — granite,  contorted  gneiss. 

(b)  Compare  crystalline  structure  of  rocks. 

To  show  that  igneous  rocks  are  due  to  the  action  of  heat,  form  crys- 
tals of  different  substances.  Make  a  saturated  solution  of  alum,  salt, 
sugar  or  copper  sulphate;  pour  part  of  the  solution  into  a  saucer,  and 
part  over  a  woolen  string  suspended  in  a  bottle.  Allow  the  solution 
in  the  saucer  to  cool  rapidly  and  that  in  the  bottle  to  cool  slowly. 
Observe  form  and  size  of  crystals.  Compare  crystals  of  quartz,  cal- 
cite,  copper  pyrites,  iron  pyrites,  etc.  Account  for  difference  in  size 
of  crystals.  Compare  size  and  shape  of  snow  crystals  on  cold  and 
mild  days. 

IV.  North  America. 

1.  Archaean  Rock. 

(a)  Granite,  gneiss,  syenite,  hornblendic,  quartzite. 

(b)  Deposits  of  iron  ore. 

2.  Distribution  of  Archaean  Rock. 

(a)  North — northeastern  Canada,  Adirondacks  and  Lake  Superior 

region. 

(b)  East — north  of  New  England  to  Georgia. 

(c)  West — along  ranges  of  mountains  which  later  became  Cor- 

dilleras. 

(d)  Land  areas  surrounded  by  ocean. 

V.  Erosion. 

1.  Cause — Chemical  and  Mechanical  Forces  at  work  on  exposed  Ig- 

neous Rock. 

2.  Effect — Sedimentary  Rock. 

(a)  Origin  of  sedimentary  rock — igneous  rock. 

(b)  Position — upon  igneous  rock. 

(c)  Location — around  igneous  rock. 

Review  subject  of  erosion  outlined  for  Sixth  Grade. 


92 

VI.  Appearance  of  Life. 

1.  Importance  of  Fossils. 

(a)  Development  of  animal  and  plant  kingdoms. 

(b)  Distribution  of  animals  and  plants. 

(c)  Climatic  conditions. 

(d)  Distribution  of  land  and  water. 

(e)  Comparative  age  of  strata. 

2.  Conditions  for  Forming  Fossils. 

(a)  Remains  of  plants  and  animals  in  water. 

(b)  Exclusion  of  oxygen. 

(c)  Deposition  of  fine  sediment. 

3.  Forms  of  Fossils. 

(a)  Cast  or  mold. 

(b)  Original  material. 

(c)  Petrifaction. 

4.  Incomplete  Life  Record. 

(a)  J  ew  land  animals  and  plants  preserved. 

(b)  Organisms  exposed  to  oxidation  decomposed  rapidly. 

(c)  Water  animals  with  soft  parts  leave  no  trace. 

(d)  Fossils  destroyed  by  metamorphism  or  solution. 

VII.  Distribution  of  Land  and  Water. 

1.  Maps. 

(a)  Duplicate  maps  of  North  America. 

(b)  Indicate  supposed  areas  of  land  and  water  during  geological 

eras. 

2.  Hypothetical  maps  of  North  America. 

(a)  Archaean  era. 

(b)  Carboniferous  period. 

(c)  Cretaceous  period. 

(d)  Tertiary  period. 

(e)  Glacial  and  Champlain  periods. 

These  maps  can  be  found  in  geological  works  by  Shaler,  Dana,  Tarr. 

Children  should  compare  in  imagination  the  life  conditions  of  dif- 
ferent geological  eras  and  periods  with  the  present. 

They  should  know  that  all  geological  time  is  divided  into  four  great 
periods. 

1.  Archaean — possibly  without  life. 

2.  Paleozoic. 


(a)  Cambrian.  „,  .,  ... 

\ ;  ^  C11     •         r  Trilobites. 

(b)  Lower  Silurian,    j 

(c)  Upper  Silurian. 


/,x  T^         .  ,  Fishes. 

(d)  Devonian. 

(e)  Carboniferous.    Amphibians. 


93 


VIII.  Classification  of  AnimarKingdom. 


1.  Protozoans,  -^ 

2.  Radiates,.  

3.  Invertebrates,    ... 

4.  Vertebrates. 

a.  Fishes 

b.  Amphibians 

c.  Reptiles,    ... 
'      d.  Birds 

e.  Mammals,    , 


Fossil  Forms. 


Modern. 


Rhizipods .i  Amoeba. 

Radiolarians.  j 

Coral,    I  Coral. 

Crinoids ;  Crinoids. 

Sea  Urchins,    \  Star  flsh,    sea  urchins. 

Brachiopods {   Clams. 

Ammonites,    i  Nautilus. 

Dragon  Flies |   Insects. 

Trilobltes [  Sow  bugs. 

Crustaceans,    Crayfish,    snail. 


Ganoid,    

Perch,     

Otozoum   Moodii, 
Ichthyosaurus, 
Archaeopteryx, 
Mastodon,    


Shark. 
Bass. 
Frogs. 

Alligator,    snake, 
Robin. 

Elephant,      dog,      cat, 
seal,    whale. 


horse. 


Bj  comparing  fossil  and  modern  forms,  a  progressive  development 
will  be  observed. 

The  different  species  of  ancient  and  modern  life  should  be  related 
to  the  work  they  have  done  and  are  doing  in  rock  formation  of  the 
world.  As  mollusks  to  formation  and  marble;  corals  to  building  of 
islands. 

IX.  Classification  of  Plants. 


Fossil. 


Modem. 


1.  Thallophytes,     . 

2.  Bryophytes,    ... 

3.  Pteridophytes, 

4.  Spermatophytes 


Sea  weeds,    Algae. 

Fungi. 

Lichens I  Lichens. 

Land  plants,    I  Mosses. 

Liverworts. 

Tree    ferns Ferns. 

Lepidodendrons,    Lycopodium. 

Cycads Selaginella. 

Calamites Equisetum. 

Gingko,     Evergreen  trees. 

Deciduous  trees. 


FORMATION  OF  COAL. 


I.  Conditions  of  Life,  .  - 

1.  Plants. 

(a)  Extensive  marshes. 

(b)  Luxuriant  growth  of  vegetation. 

(c)  Gigantic  ferns,  club  mosses,  equisetum,  cycads,  lepidoden- 

drons. 

(d)  Climate  tropical. 

(e)  Atmosphere  humid;  laden  with  carbon  dioxide. 

2.  Animals. 

(a)  Crinoids,  corals,  brachiopods. 

(b)  Worms,  crustaceans,  trilobites. 


94 

(c)  Spiders,  scorpions,  myriopod^,  land  snails. 

(d)  Dragon  flies,   cock   roaches,   crickets,  beetles;  no  bees,   no 

flowers. 

(e)  Sharks,  ganoids. 

(f)  First  terrestrial  vertebrates — amphibians. 

II.  Subsequent  Events. 

1.  Subsidence:  Shallow  Sea,  Unstable. 

2.  Life  Submerged. 

3.  Deposition  of  Sediment. 

4.  Generation  of  Heat. 

5.  Metamorphosis  of  Plants. 

III.  Stratification  of  Coal  Measures. 

1.  Successive  Layers  of  Clay  and  Coal. 

2.  Layers  Vary  in  Thickness. 

MINERAL  OIL  AND  GAS. 
I.  Deposits. 

1.  Porous  Rock — Trenton  Limestone. 

2.  Reservoir  Capped  by  Impervious  Layer  of  Rock. 

II.  Origin. 

1.  Decomposition  of  Animal  and  Plant  Life,  Deposited  in  Seas  and 

Lakes. 

2.  Slow  Distillation  Caused  by  Pressure  and  Heat. 
'^  Hydrocarbons  Produced. 

4.  Hydrocarbons  Exist  as  Gas  or  Oil. 

GLACIAL  PERIOD. 

I.  Glaciated  Area  of  North  America. 

1.  Canada,  Greenland. 

United  States,  from  Atlantic  Ocean  west,  north  of  Ohio  and  Mis- 
souri Rivers. 

2.  Kinds  of  Glaciers. 

(a)  Continental — Greenland. 

(b)  Valley — Western  United  States. 

(1)  Snow  fields,  accumulation  of  snow. 

(2)  Neve — granular  ice. 

(8)  Ice  stream — moving  compact  ice. 

3.  Moraines. 

(a)  Lateral — a  moving  talus. 

(b)  Medical — formed  by  union  of  two  lateral  moraines. 
((')  Terminal — accumulation  at  fnmt  end. 

(d)  Ground — loose  rock,  material  beneath  the  ice. 


1)5 

II.  Work  of  Glacier. 

1.  Erosion. 

(a)  Grinding  of  rocks  carried  and  passed  over,  freeing  boulder 

clay. 

(b)  Polishing  and  striating  rocks. 

(c)  Wearing  of  surface  contour  by  moving  ice. 

2.  Transportation. 

(a)  On  top  of  ice. 

(b)  Embedded  in  ice. 

(c)  Under  ice. 

3.  Deposition. 

(a)  Unassorted  and  unstratified  mass  of  clay  and  boulders. 

(b)  Assorted  and  stratified  sand  and  gravel  left  by  glacial  streams. 

(c)  Irregular  deposition  forming  lakes. 

In  connection  with  glaciers  review  evaporation,  condensation  and 
snow  crystals. 

Do  you  see  any  evidences  of  glaciers  in  your  neighborhood — ground 
rock,  scratched  boulders,  granitic  boulders;  moraines? 

Compare  glaciated  areas  of  North  America  with  non-glaciated. 

Locate  lake  regions  of  North  America.  What  effect  did  glaciers 
have  on  drainage  systems,  agricultural  products  of  glaciated  regions? 
What  element  in  soil  do  grains  require?  What  kind  of  rock  sup- 
plies it? 

Whether  the  world  was  made  for  man  or  not  it  was  well  made  for 
that  purpose.  This  work  in  geographical  nature  study  is  outlined  for 
the  purpose  of  having  children  see  the  relation  between  present  and 
past  geographical  conditions;  that  present  agricultural,  commercial, 
and  industrial  progress  is  dependent  upon  the  mineral  deposits,  drain- 
age systems,  soil  and  climatic  conditions;  that  nothing  is  isolated — 
all  nature  is  a  unit. 

As  a  rule  very  little  attention  is  given  to  the  lower  forms  of  plant- 
life.  They  are  so  abundant  and  so  beautiful  they  should  be  studied. 
The  algae  can  be  observed  in  the  aquarium.  If  possible  the  threads 
should  be  examined  with  a  compound  microscope.  Puff  balls,  toad 
stools,  and  mushrooms  are  of  great  interest  and  should  be  studied; 
some  on  account  of  their  beatuy  of  coloring,  mushrooms  because  of 
their  value  for  food.  Kemove  the  stem-like  structure  of  a  mushroom ; 
put  the  cap  on  a  piece  of  white  paper,  cover  with  a  glass.  After  a 
few  hours  remove  the  glass  and  cap  and  notice  the  spore  print. 
Lichens  can  be  found  on  trees,  rocks,  old  fences  and  on  the  ground  all 
through  the  year.  Note  color,  variety,  form,  fruiting  cups.  Relate 
to  disintegration  of  rock  and  soil  formation. 

Different  varieties  of  mosses  and  liverworts  should  be  observed; 
structure  is  too  difficult  to  attempt. 

Ferns  should  be  carefully  studied — they  are  so  abundant  and  so 
closely  related  to  the  coal  period. 

7 


96 

Plant. 

Parts — roots,  utiderground  stem,  leaves  and  sori. 
Sori — groups  of  brown  bodies  on  under  side  of  leaf. 
Note  location — irregular  distribution,  regular. 

SUN. 

The  sun  is  the  great  power  for  keeping  the  machinery  of  the  uni- 
verse in  motion.  It  should  be  studied  with  great  diligence.  All 
light,  heat,  moisture,  condition  of  animals  and  plants  are  dependent 
upon  the  relative  positions  of  earth  and  sun.  Weekly  observations 
should  be  recorded. 

Construct  a  "Shadow  Stick."  Fasten  securely  a  piece  of  smooth 
board  4x3x4  inches  to  the  end  of  one  12x3xJ  inches,  forming  a  right 
angle.  Drive  a  post  in  the  school  yard.  Make  the  top  horizontal 
and  on  it  make  a  north  and  south  line  which  will  coincide  with  the 
meridian  of  the  place.  Once  a  week,  at  noon,  when  the  sun  is  on  the 
meridian,  place  the  shadow  stick  parallel  with  the  line,  with  the  up- 
right piece  toward  the  sun.  'Mark  the  shadow  cast  by  a  line  on  one 
edge  of  the  12  inch  board  and  record  the  date.  Shadow  will  increase 
in  length  from  June  21  to  December  21.  As  the  shadow  decreases 
from  December  21  to  June  21,  mark  records  on  the  opposite  edge. 
Compare  records  of  March  21  and  September  21. 

Put  a  semi-circular  piece  of  cardboard  in  an  east  window  and  one 
in  a  west  window.  Arrange  an  upright  that  will  cast  a  shadow. 
Mark  shadow  at  same  time  each  morning  and  evening.  What  rela- 
tion do  the  morning  shadows,  September  21  and  March  21,  have  to 
the  meridian  line;  the  evening? 

The  length  of  shadow  varies  inversely  with  temperature  and  length 
of  day.  Arc  through  which  the  sun  passes  each  day  varies  directly 
with  length  of  day  and  temi)erature. 

Compare  force  of  morning,  noon,  and  evening  rays;  of  June  and  De- 
cember rays.  Compare  climatic  and  life  conditions  of  Arctic,  tem- 
perate and  tro])ical  areas. 

Children  should  now  be  able  to  make  very  accurate  observations 
and  to  ascribe  reasons  for  the  phenomena  observed. 

A   copy  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau  should  be  daily 
studied.     Observations  should  include: 
Sky. 

Color — dark,  light,  and  grayish  blue. 
Twilight. 

Cause  and  peri(;d  in  summer  and  winter;  colors  of  morning  and 
evening  twilight;  succession  of  tints  and  their  cause. 
Rainbow. 

Situation  at  different  times;  tints. 


97 

Lunar  Rainbows. 

Tints.  . 

Sundo^s. 
Halos. 

Solar  halo;  lunar  halo;  color  of  sky  within  halo. 
Precipitation  of  Vapor  of  the  Air. 

Origin  of  dew;  most  favorable  conditions  for  formation.     More 
abundant  in  country  or  town. 
Hoar  Frost. 

Formation;  crystalline  structure;  where  most  abundant. 
Fog. 

Cause;  what  time  of  day  most  common;  occurrence  on  high  or  low 
land;  near  a  body  of  water  or  land. 

LIGHT. 

Light  plays  so  important  a  part  in  the  economy  of  nature  that  the 
children  should  have  some  idea  of  its  laws  and  influences. 
1.  Sources  of  Light. 

'Sun,  stars,  chemical  and  mechanical  action,  electricity,  phosphor- 
escence. Compare  combustion  without  light  and  combustion  ac- 
companied with  light. 

Light  by  friction;  light  by  percussion. 

Indian's  manner  of  making  fire — by  friction;  striking  a  stone  with 
a  piece  of  steel.     Spark  in  old  flint  lock  guns. 

Distinguish  between  transparent,  translucent,  and  apaque  bodies; 
self-luminous,  non-luminous,  and  illuminated  bodies. 

Light  travels  in  a  straight  line  through  one  medium.  Distinguish 
between  reflected,  refracted,  and  diffused  light.  Do  we  see  most 
things  with  reflected  or  diffused  light? 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  light  a  sheep's  eye  or  a  pig's  eye 
should  be  dissected,  and  the  internal  structure  compared  with  that  of 
the  human  eye.  Carefully  remove  all  flesh  and  fat.  Observe  color  and 
texture  of  coats  and  optic  nerve.  With  a  sharp  knife  carefully  cut 
through  the  sclerotic  coat,  and  gently  press  the  contents  out  on  a 
piece  of  glass.  The  watery  substance  is  the  aqueous  humor,  the  clear, 
transparent,  firm  humor  the  crystalline  lens,  and  the  white  jelly-like 
substance  the  vitreous  humor.  The  dark  circular  portion  is  the  iris. 
Observe  the  two  sets  of  muscles — radiating  and  circular. 
The  Human  Eye. 
(a)  Protections. 

Bony  socket,  cushion  of  fat,  brows,  lids,  lashes,  oil  glands  at 
base  of  lashes,  tear  gland,  tear  duct. 


.98 

(b)  Coats. 

Sclerotic,  choroid,  cornea. 

(c)  Internal  structure. 

Aqueous  humor,  iris,  crystalline  lens,  vitreous  humor,  retina, 
optic  nerve. 
Remove  the  crystalline  lens  and  place  it  over  printed  paper.     It 
magnifies  the  print.     Relate  this  to  the  construction  of  lenses. 

Uses  of  Lenses. 

(a)  Microscopes — simple  and  compound. 

(b)  Telescopes — refracting  and  reflecting. 

(c)  Cameras. 

(d)  Spectacles. 

(e)  Magic  lanterns. 

(f)  Stereopticons.  ^ 

Hang  a  prism  in  the  window.  Catch  refracted  light — the  spectrum. 
Much  time  should  be  spent  in  training  children  to  a  fine  appreciation 
of  color  in  nature. 

Observe  clouds  at  sunrise  and  sunset;  difference  between  color  of 
summer  and  winter  clouds.     Rainbows,  sundogs,  halos  and  corona. 

Significance  of  color  in  flowers,  fruit,  birds,  insects,  shells  and 
animals.  Contrast  the  coloring  of  the  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and 
winter  landscapes. 

,  Contrast  color  of  seedlings  grown  in  the  dark,  shade,  and  sunlight. 
Why  do  house  plants  turn  the  upper  surfaces  of  their  leaves  to  the 
light?  Plants  assimilate  their  food  under  the  influence  of  sunlight. 
The  form  of  leaves  and  arrangement  on  the  stem  are  for  the  purpose 
of  presenting  the  greatest  leaf  area  to  the  light.  Observe  how  the 
leaves  have  adapted  themselves  for  this  purpose.  A  field  lesson  with 
this  point  in  view  is  of  great  profit.  Compare  plants  of  the  same 
variety  grown  in  the  woods  and  in  the  open;  leaves  of  plants  that 
grow  on  the  surface  of  water  with  those  in  the  water;  the  trunks, 
branches  and  leaves  of  trees  in  dense  forests  with  those  in  open  fields. 
Compare  light  demanding  trees  with  shade  enduring  trees. 

Effect  of  light  upon  eyes  of  animals.  Compare  eyes  of  mole,  cat, 
dog,  owl,  and  horse. 

SOUNDS  IN  NATURE. 

So  much  of  the  nature  study  work  is  devoted  to  that  which  appeals 
to  the  child  through  the  eye,  that  sounds  in  nature  are  apt  to  escape, 
and  the  phenomena  of  sound  to  be  neglected. 
Some  sounds  to  be  distinguished: 

Songs,  call  notes,  alarm  calls  of  different  birds. 

Notes  of  different  times  of  day  and  seasons. 

Flapping  and  fluttering  of  birds'  wings. 

Mtisic  and  musical  instruments  of  insects. 


99 

Sound  of  flight  of  insects. 

Step  of  a  horse — trotter,  pacer. 

Sounds  made  by  horse,  cow,  sheep,  dog,  cat. 

Rustle  of  leaves  made  by  snake,  lizard,  mouse  or  bird. 

Sound  made  by  wind  in  leaves  of  different  trees,  spring  and  au- 
tumn. 

Contrast  sounds  made  by  pines,  hemlocks,  birches,  oaks,  chest- 
nuts, poplars  and  Scotch  firs;  by  fields  of  unripe  and  ripened 
corn,  wheat,  oats  and  barley. 

Sound  made  by  rain  on  leaves  and  grass. 

Rippling  of  a  stream,  dashing  of  waves. 

Detect  any  musical  notes. 

1.  Classification  of  Sound. 

1.  Pleasant — tones — song  sparrow's  notes. 

2.  Unpleasant — noise — thunder. 

II.  Properties  of  Simple  Tones.  *. 

1.  Pitch — high,  cricket's  chirp. 

2.  Intensity — illustration. 

3.  Duration — illustration. 

III.  Transmission  of  Sound. 

1.  Gases — conductor  of  sound. 

(a)  Are  sounds  clearer  on  a  warm  or  cold  day;  summer  or  winter; 
colder  countries  or  tropics;  mountains  or  valleys;  country 
or  town? 

2.  Liquids;  better  conductors  than  gases. 

(a)  Strike  stones  together  under  water;  in  air;  where  is  sound 
more  distinct;  experience  of  divers. 

3.  Solids;  better  conductors  than  liquids. 

(a)  Tap  gently  on  a  piece  of  wood;  have  another  persons  ten  feet 
away;  listen;  tap  again,  and  have  the  other  person  put  his 
ear  to  the  wood.  In  which  case  is  the  sound  more  distinct? 
Why  do  Indians  put  the  ear  to  the  ground  to  discover  a 
footfall?  Why  is  copper  used  more  for  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone wires  than  iron. 

IV.  Speaking  Tubes. 

1.  Value  and  Use. 

2.  Ear  Trumpets. 

3.  Gramophones. 

V.  Reflection  of  Sound. 

1.  Compare  Reflection  of  Sound  and  Reflection  of  Light. 

2.  Echoes:  cause. 


100 

VI.  Velocity  of  Sound. 

1.  Light  Travels  Faster  than  Sound. 

(a)  Lightning  and  thunder. 

(b)  Steam  and  whistle. 

(c)  Flash  of  a  gun  and  report. 

(d)  Falling  tree  and  crash. 


101 


EIGHTH  GRADE. 


THE  HOME. 


In  the  A  Eighth  Grade,  the  grade  below  the  high  school,  the  children 
reach  the  period  of  sentimentality.  The  creative  energy  which  has 
manifested  itself  in  so  many  ways  since  the  beginning,  is  now  throb- 
bing in  tiieir  bodies  as  sex  impulses,  as  natural,  as  pure,  and  as  right 
as  the  beating  of  their  young,  vigorous  hearts.  This  force  is  vital,  it 
is  life  and  should  not  be  crushed,  but  directed  in  the  proper  channels, 
and  avenues  opened  to  them  which  will  afford  opportunities  for  self- 
expression.  ! 

In  this  grade  the  central  thought  is  the  home.  The  science  work  is 
that  which  will  give  them  ideas  of  the  best  home  making  and  home 
keeping. 

Discuss  the  location,  plans,  material,  ventilation,  heating,  lighting, 
sanitation,  decoration,  furnishing,  books,  music,  food,  dress,  care  of 
the  house  and  landscape  gardening.  Each  topic  is  elaborated  and  as 
much  of  the  work  is  done  experimentally  as  possible.  The  children 
should  visit  the  water  works,  gas  works,  scientifically  constructed 
buildings  to  see  the  lighting,  heating  and  ventilating  plants,  and  ma- 
chinery for  running  the  elevators;  also,  the  Weather  Bureau. 

Each  pupil  can  imagine  he  could  build  and  furnish  a  house  just  as 
he  desires.  The  wisdom  of  this  might  be  questioned  by  some.  The 
object  is  to  give  the  children  ideals  of  the  best  home  possible.  The 
work  will  certainly  give  them  an  impetus  toward  the  best. 

tt  will  not  be  possible  to  go  into  the  details  of  the  work  or  describe 
experiments;  it  is  only  hoped  that  teachers  may  get  suggestions  which 
they  can  work  out  individually. 

LOCATION. 
1.  Country.  •      , 

Advantages.  Disadvantages. 

Pure  air.  Lack  of  social  life. 

Good  food.  Poor  comjaunication. 

Independent  life.  Bad  roads. 

Contact  with  nature.  Poor  schools. 

Low  taxes.  No  postal  service. 


102 


2.  Suburbs. 
Advantages. 

Good  air. 
Good  schools. 
Good  churches. 
Rapid  trp-nsit. 
Good  water  supply. 
Fire  protection. 

3.  City. 
Advantages. 

Library. 
fc5chools. 
Social  life. 
Time  saved. 
Rapid  transit. 


Disadvantages. 

Distance  from  business. 
Increased  taxes. 
Distance  from  market. 


Disadvantages. 
High  taxes.    " 
Smoke. 

Danger  from  fire. 
Crowded  conditions. 
Disease. 


PLAN. 

Number  and  arrangement  of  rooms  arranged  with  reference  to  size 
of  lot,  exposure  and  proximity  to  other  buildings. 

Reception  hall.  Music  room. 

Drawing  room.  Nursery. 

Living  room.  Living  room. 

Library.  Closets. 

Dining  room.  Attic. 

Kitchen.  Piazzas. 

Bed  rooms.  Conservatory. 

Laundry.  Barn. 

The  children  can  make  their  own  plans,  or  copy  plans  drawn  by 
architects.  This  is  optional.  Original  plans  will  show  individuality, 
care  and  judgment.  Good  points  and  bad  points  in  the  drawings  can 
be  discussed,  credit  always  being  given  for  effort.  Each  child  should 
keep  a  book  containing  the  plans  and  elevations  of  his  house,  pic- 
tures of  interiors — selected  from  magazines  and  art  and  architectural 
books.  Selections  give  an  opportunity  for  study  into  character,  which 
is  valuable.  Selection  of  furniture  is  equally  interesting — pictures 
of  good  sanitary  plumbing,  convenient  equipment  for  laundry,  best 
designs  for  cooking  stoves,  kitchen  utensils,  furniture  for  drawing, 
living  and  dining  rooms,  etc. 


1.  Stone. 

(a)  Kinds. 

Granite. 
Sandstone. 


MATERIAL. 


Limestone. 
Marble. 


103 


(b)  Characteristics. 

Hardness — cutting. 
Texture — polish.  • 

Color— beauty. 
Durability — economy. 
Cost. 

Distribution — vertical  and  horizontal. 
Origin — igneous  or  aqueous. 
Quarrying — location. 
Brick. 


Manufacture. 

Durability. 

Material. 

Brick  laying. 

Kinds  and  colors. 

lTr\nr\ 

Advantage  of  brick, 

V  OOQ. 

(a)  Uses. 

Floors. 

Woodwork. 

Furniture. 

(b)  Kinds. 

Oak. 

Walnut. 

Ash. 

Cherry. 

Maple. 

Birch. 

Ebony. 

Mahogany. 

(c)  Characteristics. 

Texture. 

Markings. 

Grain. 

Color. 

Durability. 

Polish. 

(d)  Cutting. 

Straight  cut. 

Quarter  sawed. 

VENTILATION. 

THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

1.  Composition^mixture. 

(a)  Nitrogen,  four-fifths. 

(b)  Oxygen,  one-fifth. 

(c)  Carbon  dioxide,  four-te'n  thousandths 

(d)  Water,  variable.  , 

2.  Properties. 

Invisible. 

Colorless.  « 

Transparent. 
Odorless. 
n.  Effects  of  Heat  upon  Air. 
(a)  Heat  expands  afr. 


Has  weight. 

Presses  equally  in  all  directions. 

Compressible. 

Elastic. 


104 

(b)  Cold  contracts  air. 

(c)  Location  of  hot  and  cold  air  in  room. 

4.  Experiments. 

(1)  Fit  a  glass  tube  with  a  rubber  tubing  on  the  end  of  it  into  a 

cork.     Fit  the  cork  in  a  test  tube,  making  it  air  tight. 

Place  the  end  of  the  rubber  tubing  in  a  glass  of  water. 

Heat  the  test  tube.     Why  do  the  bubbles  come  up  through 

the  water? 

Heat  expands  the  air.     Expanded  air  presses  equally  in 

all  directions  and  finds  the  easiest  egress  through  the  tubes 

and  water. 
(  2)  Partially  fill  a  small  top  rubber  balloon  or  bladder  with 

air.     Securely  tie  the  opening,  making  it  air  tight.     Place 

in  a  vessel  of  cold  water  and  heat  slowly.     When  the  air  has 

become  expanded  remove  and  plunge  into  cold  water. 
Account  for  the  result. 
(3)  Ascend  a  step  ladder  carrying  a  thermometer.     Account  for 

the  difference  in  the  reading  of  the  thermometer. 

5.  Study  of  Flame. 

(a)  Dark  zone — no  combustion. 

(b)  Illuminated  zone — partial  combustion. 

(c)  Mantle — complete  combustion. 

6.  Experiments. 

(1)  Place  matches  successively  in  the  dark  zone,  illuminated  zone, 

and  mantle  of  a  candle.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  time 
of  igniting?     Which  zone  is  hottest? 

(2)  Place  a  match  or  splinter  across  a  flame.     Which  zone  burns 

the  stick  most?     Which  least? 

(3)  Press  a  sheet  of  white  cardboard,  held  horizontally,  upon  the 

flame  of  a  candle,  almost  down  to  the  wick.  Remove  care- 
fully. Which  zone  deposited  the  most  soot?  Which  least? 
Why? 

7.  Experiments  with  Carbon  Dioxide. 

(1)  Burn  a  candle  or  splinter  in  a  jar  of  air  forming  carbon  di- 

oxide. Pour  lime  water  into  the  jar  of  carbon  dioxide  and 
note  change  in  appearance  of  limewater. 

(2)  Breathe  through  a  glass  tube' into  a  jar  of  lime  water.     Note 

change  in  appearance  of  lime  water.  Compare  results  of 
the  two  experiments  and  account  for  phenomena. 
(8)  Place  a  glass  containing  lime  water  on  the  floor  of  the  school 
room;  on  the  window  sill;  near  tUe  top  of  the  room;  outside 
of  the  window  exposed  to  the  fresh  air.  Leave  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  Compare  water  in  the  different  glasses  and 
give  reasons  for  the  change,  if  there  be  any.  Relate  to  pre- 
vious experiments. 


105 

8.  Respiration. 

(a)  Organs  connected  with  respiration. 

Heart,  arteries,  capillaries  and  veins. 

(b)  Organs  used  in  respiration. 

Pharynx,  glottis,  epiglottis,  vocal  chords,  larynx,  trachea, 
bronchial  tubes,  air  cells  and  blood  vessels. 

(c)  Chemistry  of  respiration. 

Plants:  inspiration  carbon  dioxide,  expiration  oxygen. 
Animals :  inspiration  oxygen,  expiration  carbon  dioxide. 
Amount  of  work  done  by  plants. 
Amount  of  work  done  by  animals. 

9.  Necessity  of  Air. 

(a)  Fatal  results  of  poor  air;  no  air. 

Asphyxiation. 
Drowning. 

(b)  Necessity  of  ventilation  in — 

School  room. 

Churches. 

Theaters. 

Cars. 

Sick  rooms. 

Hospitals. 

Factories. 

Mines. 

HEATING. 

1.  Wood. 

2.  Coal. 

(a)  Life  history  of  trees  and  plants. 

(b)  Food  of  plants. 

Carbon  dioxide. 
Water. 
Nitrogen  salts. 

(c)  Free  oxidation  of  fallen  trees  and  leaves. 

(d)  Slow  oxidation  of  fallen  leaves  covered  with  water. 

(e)  Subsidence  of  carboniferous  forests. 

(f)  Deposition  of  soil. 

(g)  Transformation  of  plant  material  into  coal, 
(h)  Upheaval  of  submerged  area. 

(i)    Mining  of  coal. 

(j)    Use  of  coal  as  fuel. 

(k)  Liberation  of  the  sun's  energy  as  heat. 

3.  Natural  Gas. 

(a)  Origin. 

(b)  Source. 


106 

(c)  Pumping. 

(d)  Piping.  . 

(e)  Use. 

(f)  Advantages  and  disadvantages. 
4.  Systems  of  Heating. 

(a)  Hot  air. 

(b)  Hot  water. 

(c)  Electricity. 

LIGHTING. 

1.  Kinds  of  Lights. 

(a)  Pine  knots. 

(b)  Oil-fat  lamps. 

(c)  Candles,  tallow  dips  and  molded. 

(d)  Coal  oil  lamps. 

(e)  Illuminating  gas. 

(f)  Electricity. 

2.  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Each. 

(a)  Brilliancy. 

(b)  steadiness. 

(c)  Economy. 

(d)  Effects  upon  ventilation  and  furniture. 

3.  Location  of  Lights. 

(a)  Ceiling  lights. 

(b)  Side  lights. 

SANITATION. 
1.  Study  of  Air. 

(a)  Pressure. 

(b)  Compressibility. 

(c)  Elasticity. 
Experiments. 

(1)  Fill  a  glass  with  water;  place  a  blotter  securely  over  the  top; 

turn  the  glass  in  every  direction.  Blotter  does  not  fall  from 
the  glass  because  air  presses  equally  in  all  directions. 

(2)  Partially  fill  a  bottle  with  water;  fit  a  glass  tube  of  small 

bore,  drawn  to  a  point,  through  a  cork.  Place  the  cork  in 
the  opening  of  the  bottle  making  it  air  tight  and  extend 
the  tube  under  the  water.  Blow  through  the  tube  and  ob- 
serve the  bubbles  rising  through  the  water.  As  the  water 
occupies  the  same  space,  the  air  must  be  compressed. 

(3)  Apparatus  same  as  in  Ex.  (2).     After  blowing  through  the 

tube  remove  the  lips.  Water  comes  from  the  glass  tube  in 
a  fine  stream.  The  air  being  elastic,  when  it  is  compressed 
tries  to  resume  its  normal  density,  presses  in  all  directions, 


107 

finds  the  least  resistance  in  the  water  and  forces  it  up  and 
out  of  the  tube. 

3.  Pumps. 

(a)  Lifting  pumps. 

(bj  Force  pumps. 

Glass  models  of  pumps  can  be  procured  at  small  cost  from 
any  supply  company,  or  can  be  easily  constructed  by  the 
use  of  some  argand  lamp  chimneys,  corks,  wire,  and 
leather  valves.  The  principle  of  the  lifting  and  force 
pump  is  simple,  every  child  can  understand  it.  By  ob- 
serving the  experiments  on  pressure,  compressibility  and 
elasticity  of  air,  they  will  be  able  to  construct  pumps  and 
understand  their  workings.  The  application  is  made  in 
wind  mills,  spraying  apparatus,  etc. 

4.  Water  Works. 

(a)  Drinking. 

(b)  Cooking. 

(c)  Laundry. 

(d)  Sanitary  purposes  of  home. 

(e)  Lawns.  ,    " 

(f)  Plants  and  animals. 

(g)  Cleaning  streets. 

(h)  Sanitary  purposes  of  city. 
(i)    Fire  protection. 

5.  Plumbing. 

(a)  Sanitary  plumbing. 

(b)  Dangers  of  imperfect  plumbing. 

(c)  Diseases  incident  to  imperfect  plumbing. 

FURNISHING. 

1.  Rugs. 

(a)  Kind.  -  ^ 

(b)  Quality.  .. 

(c)  Coloring. 

(d)  Manufacture, 

2.  Furniture. 

(a)  Polished  wood. 

(b)  Brass  or  iron  beds.  • 

(c)  Stuffed  furniture — not  hygienic. 

(d)  Drapery. 

Light — to  admit  sun. 
Material  that  can  be  laundried. 


108 


3.  Coloring  of  Walls. 

(a)  Living  and  dining  room — cheerful. 

(b)  Library — quiet,  restful  color. 

(c)  Bedrooms — personal  choice. 

ART. 

1.  Pictures. 

(a)  Pictures  appropriate  for  rooms. 

(b)  Proper  hanging  of  pictures. 

(c)  Correct  framing. 

2.  Statuary. 

(a)  Casts. 

(b)  Bas-reliefs. 


BOOKS. 


1.  Standard  Authors. 

2.  Selection  of  Books. 

3.  Binding. 

(a)  Standard  books. 

(b)  Current  literature. 


MUSIC 


1.  Instruments. 

2.  Kinds  of  Music. 

3.  Composers. 

FOOD. 

1.  Health. 

(a)  Foor  produces  growth. 

(b)  Exercise  produces  strength. 

2.  Kinds  of  Food. 

(a)  Animal. 

(b)  Vegetable. 

(c)  Mixed  diet. 

3.  Hygienic  Cooking. 

4.  Proper  Serving  of  Food. 

5.  Stimulants. 

(a)  Coflee. 

(b)  Tea. 

(c)  Alcoholic  beverages. 

(d)  Evil  effects  of  cigarettes. 


Economy. 

(a)  Best  is  cheapest. 

(b)  Proper  material. 

(c)  Artistic  coloring. 

(d)  Hygienic  dressing. 


109 
DRESS. 


SPRING  WORK, 


Landscape  Gardening. 

Suggestions  for  Planting. 

(a)  Relate  plants  of  a  harmonious  kind  and  color. 

(b)  Plant  beautiful  flowers  in  beautiful  groups. 

(c)  Contrast  methods  of  growth,  and  hues  of  blossom  and  leaf. 

(d)  Make  beds  growing  pictures. 

Hints  on  rural  school  grounds,  by  L.  H.  Bailey.     Bulletin 

160,  Cornell  University. 
Planting  of  shrubbery.    Bulletin  121,  Cornell  University. 


1.  Trees. 

(a)  Artistic  planting. 

(b)  Selection. 

Maple,     . 

Elm, 

Oak, 

Birch, 

Ash, 

Mountain  ash, 

Poplar, 

Horse-chestnut, 

Catalpa, 

Evergreens. 

2.  Shrubs. 

(a)  Artistic  massing  of  shrubs. 

(b)  Choice  varieties. 

Snowball, 

Spirea, 

Lilac, 

Barberry, 

Syringa, 

Japonica, 

Hydra  nga. 

Flowering  almond 

Roses, 

.*5.  Vines. 

(a)  Flowering  vines. 

Clematis, 

Wisteria, 

Honeysuckle, 

Virginia  creeper. 

Moonvine, 

Morning-glory, 

Passion  flower. 

Sweet  peas. 

110 

4.  Flowers. 

Asters,  Petunia, 

Ageratum,  Daisies, 

Marjgold,  Poppies, 

Portulaca,  Larkspur, 

Zinnias,  Balsam, 

Pansies,  Esclilotzia, 

Hollyhocks,  Sweet  pea. 

Bachelor's  buttons,  Sunflower, 

Candytuft,  Nasturtium, 

Phlox,  Migonette. 

5.  Bulbous  Plants. 

Crocus,  *  Tulip, 

Narcissus,  Daffodil, 

Hyacinth,  Chinese  lily. 

6.  Propagation. 

(a)  Separation. 

(1)  Secure  a  bulb,  as  tiger  lily,  Bermuda  lily;  remove  the 

scales,  planting  those  having  bulbules  in  sand.  Note 
the  development  of  plant  and  the  manner  of  multipli- 
cation. Secure  mother  bulbs  from  which  young  bulbs 
may  be  detached. 

(2)  Cut  a  hyacinth  bulb  into  quarters  at  the  base,  leaving 

the  upper  part  intact.  Plant  in  sand  and  observe  the 
location  of  the  growing  bulbules. 

(3)  Hollow  the  base  of  the  hyacinth  bulb,  plant  in  sand, 

observe  the  development  of  bulbules. 

(4)  Corm.     Illustrate  by  gladiola.     Plant  in  sand,  remove 

from  the  ground  occasionally  and  observe  the  develop- 
ment of  new  corms. 

(b)  Cuttings. 

(1)  Stem  cuttings. 

Many  plants  can  be  propagated  by  green  wood  cuttings. 

(a)  Soft  wood    cuttings — geraninums,    coleuses,    car- 

nations, fuchsias,  marguerites,  chrysanthemums, 
roses. 

(b)  Ripened  green  wood  cuttings — azaleas,  oleanders 

and  roses. 

(2)  Leaf  cuttings. 

Begonias  and  many  thick,  heavy  leaves  are  ])ropa gated 
in  this  way. 
(a)  Remove  the  petiole  of  leaf,  and  place  in  moss  or 

sand  in  moist  atmosphere.     Small  plants  will 

start  from  the  veins. 


Ill 

(b)  Cut  the  leaf  in  two  pieces  and  place  the  cut  margin 
in  moist  moss  or  sand  in  a  moist  atmosphere. 

(c)  Cut  the  leaf  into  several  fan-shaped  pieces;  put  the 
strong  rib  into  the  moss  or  sand. 

Various  kinds  of  Separation. 

(a)  Tuber  separation. 

(b)  Koot  separation. 

(c)  Stem  separation. 

(d)  Leaf  separation. 

CARE  OF  THE  GARDEN. 

1.  Preparation  of  soil. 

2.  Layout  out  of  beds. 

3.  Germinating  seeds  in  boxes. 

4.  Transplanting  seed-plants. 

5.  Care  of  plants. 

6.  Gathering  harvest. 

Pictures  for  walls  of  school  room,  by 

Millet,  Breton,  Rosa  Bonheur,  Debat,  Ponsan,  Corot. 
Inalterable  Carbon  Prints,  published  by 

Mason  Ad.  Braun  &  Co.,  of  Paris,  published  by  Braun,  Clement 
&  Co.,  Successors,  Fine  Art  Publishers,  249  Fifth  avenue,  New 
York. 

PICTURES  SUGGESTED  FOR  USE  IN  SCHOOLS. 
ADAM.     1801-1867. 

499  Four  Kittens.     '  500  The  Cat  Family. 

JACQUE.     1813-1890. 

505  The  Sh'eepfold. 

MILLET.     1814-1875. 

508  Portrait  from  Life.  516  Shepherdess  Knitting. 

509  Angelus.  517  Sheep  Shearing. 

510  The  Sower.  518  Water  Carrier. 

511  The  Gleaners.  519  Woman  Churning. 

512  Going  to  Work.  520  Feeding  the  Hens. 

513  Labor.  521  Feeding  Her  Birds. 

514  Potato  Planting.  522  The  Wood  ChoppfM*. 

DAUBIGNY.     1817-1878. 

530  Landscape.     Spring. 
8 


112 


ROSA  BONHEUR.     1822-1899. 

537  Portrait  from  Life. 

538  Horse  Fair. 

539  Coming  from  the  Fair. 

540  Ploughing. 

541  Lions  at  Home. 

542  An  Old  Monarch. 

543  Morning    in    the    High- 

lands. 


548  Changing  Pasture. 

553  On  the  Alert. 

554  A  Noble  Charger. 

555  A  Norman  Sire. 

556  A  Humble  Servant. 

557  Landais  Peasants. 


AUGUSTE  BONHEUR.     1824-1844. 

561  Goats  on  the  Mountain. 

LAMBERT. 

573  Study  of  Cats.     . 


BRETON.     1827. 


575  Song  of  the  Lark. 

576  Morning. 

577  The  Gleaner. 


578  Recall  of  the  Gleaners. 

579  End  of  Labor. 

580  Blessing  the  Fields. 


LEROLLE. 


618  The  Shepherdess. 

619  By  the  River. 


620  Arrival  of  the  Shepherds. 


DUPRE.     1851. 


601  The  Haymakers. 

602  Milking  Time. 


603  Escaped  Cow. 

604  On  the  Prairie. 


LAUGEE. 

615  In  Autumn 


DUTCH  ART. 


PAUL  POTTER. 


738  Cattle. 


739  Bull. 


740  Head  of  Young  Bull. 

741  The  Prairie. 


MAUVE. 

756  Sheep. 


113 
GERMAN  ART. 


MEYER  VON  BREMEN.     1813-1886. 
792  The  Pet  Bird. 


BRITISH  ART. 


SIR  JOSHUA  REYNOLDS.     1723-1792. 

861  Angel  Heads. 

862  Age  of  Innocence. 


863  Simplicity. 

864  Penelope  Boothby. 


HERRING.     1795-1865. 

886  Pharaoh's  Horses. 

887  The  Village  Blacksmith. 


888  Three  Members  of  a  Tem- 
perance Society. 


LANDSEER.     1802-1873. 

891  The  Connoisseurs. 

892  Members  of  the  Humane 

Society. 

893  Saved. 

894  My  Dog. 

895  Odin. 

896  Dignity  and  Impudence. 

897  Well-Bred  Sitters. 

898  King  Charles  Spaniels. 

899  Sleeping  Bloodhound. 

900  Alexander  and  Diogenes. 

901  "There's  Life  in  the  Old 

Dog  Yet." 

902  Highland        Shepherd's 

Chief  Mourner. 

903  Piper  and  Nutcrackers. 

904  The  Sick  Monkey. 

BURNE- JONES.     1833-1898. 

946  Spring. 

947  Summer. 

948  Autumn. 

949  Winter. 

953  First  Dav  of  Creation. 


905  The  Prize  Calf. 

906  The  Font. 

907  A  Highland  Lassie  with 

Fawns. 

908  Shoeing  the  Horse. 

909  Wild  Cattle  of  Chilling- 

ham. 

910  Red  Deer  of  Chillingham. 

911  A  Deer  Family. 

912  King  of  the  Forest. 

913  Monarch  of  the  Glen. 

914  The  Challenge. 

915  The  Combat:  Night. 

916  The  Combat:  Morning. 

917  Stag  at  Bay. 

918  The  Sanctuary. 
The  Deer  Pass. 


954  Second  Day  of  Creation. 

955  Third  Day  of  Creation. 

956  Fourth  Day  of  Creation. 

957  Fifth  Day  of  Creation. 

958  Sixth  Dav  of  Creation. 


114 
AMERICAN  ART. 


W.  M.  HUNT.     1790-1864. 


1002  Tiger.  .       1004  Horses   and   Cart   on   a 

1003  June  Clouds.  Beach. 

UNCLASSIFIED. 
1093  St.  Cecilia.     Naujok. 

FLEMISH  ART. 

VAN  DYCK.     1599-1641. 

645  Portrait  of  Charles  I.  Five  Children. 

646  Children  of  Charles  I.  648  Baby  Stuart. 

647  Children  of  Charles  L 

ANCIENT  SCULPTURE. 

1160  Apollo.     Head.  1172  Venus  de  Milo. 

1161  Nike  Loosening  Her  San-        1173  Victory  of  Samothrace. 

dais.  1174  Victory  of  Samothrace. 

1163  Hermes.     Bust.  Profile. 

1164  Athena. 

ANIMALS. 

1301  Camel.  1308  Asiatic  Lion.     Head. 

1302  Elephant.  1309  Rhinoceros. 

1303  Giraffe.  1310  Royal  Bengal  Tiger. 
1^04  Hippopotamus.  1311  Shetland  Pony. 

1305  Jaguar.  1312  Tigers. 

1306  Leopard.  1313  Zebra. 

1307  African  Lion.  1314  Zebu. 

HISTORICAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL. 

1401  Yosemite;  from   Artist  1404  Pike's  Peak. 

Point. 

EGYPT. 

1451  Colonnade  in  Great  Hall.  1459  Karnak.      Entrance    to 

Abydos.  Temple  of  the  Rame- 

1455  Ghizeh.     Sphinx  and  Py-  ses. 
ramids. 


115 


1485  Westminster  Abbey. 


1550  Pantheon. 


1616  Parthenon. 
1649  North  Cape. 


1884  Mer  de  Glace. 


ENGLAND. 

1481  Houses  of  Parliament. 

1482  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 

FRANCE. 

1537  Madeleine. 
1545  Notre  Dame. 

GERMANY. 

1601  Cologne  Cathedral. 

GREECE. 

1611  Temple  of  Minerva. 

NORWAY. 

1644  Midnight  Sun. 

SPAIN— GRENADA. 
1850  Alhambra. 

SWITZERLAND. 

1883  Mont  Blanc. 

ITALY— FLORENCE. 
1662  Baptistery. 

MILAN. 

1685  Cathedral. 

PISA. 

1718  Leaning  Tower. 

ROME. 

1750  St.  Peter's. 

1758  Bridge  and  Castle  of  St. 

Angelo,        with        St. 

Peter's. 

VENICE. 

1802  St.  Mark's. 

1821.     Adam.     Statue. 

These  selections  are  from  the  Perry  Pictures,  price  one  cent  each, 
and  may  be  obtained  from  The  Perjy  Pictures  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Also,  pictures  in  colors— birds,  animals,  minerals,  fruits— and  pic- 
tures of  forest  trees— the  tree,  a  section  of  the  trunk,  a  spray  of  leaves, 
and  a  short  description  of  the  tree— may  be  obtained  of  the  same  firm. 


1720  Baptistery. 


1763  Colosseum. 
1766  Forum. 


1822  Eve.     Statue. 


116 


STATUARY 

PARIS. 

la  Venus  de  Milo  (ant.)  Louvre. 
ROME. 

47a  Jupiter  (bust)  Vatican. 

55a  Belvedere  Mercury,  Vatican. 

RAPHAEL'S  DAYS,  Farnese  Palace,  Rome. 

290b  Diana  (Monday). 
291b  Mars  (Tuesday). 
292b  Mercury  (Wednesday). 
293b  Jove  (Thursday). 
294b  Venus  (Friday). 
295b  Saturn  (Saturday). 
296b  Apollo  (Sunday). 

RAPHAEL'S  HOURS. 

297b  First  Hour  of  the  Day. 
298b  Second  Hour  of  the  Day. 
299b  Third  Hour  of  the  Day. 
300b  Fourth  Hour  of  the  Day. 
301b  Fifth  Hour  of  the  Day. 
302b  Sixth  Hour  of  the  Day. 
303b  First  Hour  of  the  Night. 
304b  Second  Hour  of  the  Night. 
305b  Third  Hour  of  the  Night. 
306b  Fourth  Hour  of  the  Night. 
307b  Fifth  Hour  of  the  Night. 
308b  Sixth  Hour  of  the  Night. 


FRENCH  SCHOOL. 
COROT,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  CAMILLE  (1796-1875). 

572b  Landscape.     Louvre,  Paris. 

573b  Landscape,  Morning.     Louvre,  Paris. 

574b  Landscape.     Durand,  Ruel  Collection 

575b  Orpheus  and  Euridice. 

576b  Diana  at  the  Bath. 

577b  Landscape. 

578b  Landscape. 


117 

MILLET,  JEAN  FRANCOIS  (1814-1875). 

580b  First  Step. 
581b  Feeding  the  Nestlings. 
582b  The  Gardener. 
583b  The  First  Step. 
584b  The  Sower. 

585b  The  Gleaners.     Louvre,  Paris.  * 

596b  The  Spinner. 
587b  The  Basket-maker  (drawing). 
These  selections  are  from  the  catalogue  of  Francis  Hendricks  & 
Co.,  Art  Publishers,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

APPARATUS. 


1  beaker,  100  c.  c. 

1  beaker,  200  c.  c. 

1  box  matches. 

1  clay  pipe. 

1  cork  for  cylinders. 

3  cylinders. 

1  deflagrating  spoon  and  guard. 

1  evaporating  dish,  No.  00. 

1  flask,  100  c.  c. 

1  flask,  250  c.  c. 

1  funnel,  65  mm. 

2  funnel  tubes. 

1  glass  bottle. 

3  glass  plates. 

J  length  glass  rod. 

2  lengths  glass  tubing. 

^  dozen  quart  fruit  jars. 

-J  dozen  panes  of  window  glass, 

12x15. 
I  dozen  argand  lamp  chimneys. 
J  dozen  tumblers. 
1  dozen  test  tubes. 
Hydrochloric  acid. 
Sulphuric  acid. 
Copper  sulphate. 
h  length  hard  glass  tubing. 


1  mortar  and  pestle,  85  mm. 

1  porcelain  crucible  and  cover. 

25  round  filters. 

1  sand  bath,  flat. 

1  sand  bath,  hemispherical. 

1  stick  charcoal. 

6  test  tubes,  5-inch. 

1  test  tube  holder. 

1  test  tube  rack. 

1  triangular  file. 

1  tubulated  retort. 

1  U-tube,  4-inch. 

1  watch  glass. 

1  wire  gauze,  4x4  inch. 

1  galvanized  iron  pan,  15x18x8. 

Glass  tubing  of  large  and  small 

bore. 
1  yard  of  rubber  tubing. 
1  alcohol  lamp. 
Corks. 

Horse  shoe  and  bar  magnets. 
Iron  filings. 
Copper  beaker. 
Zinc. 
Thermometers. 


(118) 


T^v 


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